Turfan Buddhism

The Turfan Collection in the Museum of Asian Art in Dahlem is now closed in preparation for its move to the Humboldt Forum in the center of Berlin, where it will re-open in 2019. This article gives some background information to the history and future of this important collection.

北涼石塔中八卦神與淨度三昧經構成起源解題:
《淨度三昧經》中的八王使者與北涼佛塔底層神秘的八卦神王造像
NB: two sentences were accidentally deleted during the process of editing in Line 3 of page 73. "It seems so. In addition, the Eight Trigrams Deities are described as invocatory deities for meditation and visualization in the Laozi zhong jing. In his research on the symbolism of the early stūpas, Peter Harvey (1984: 67 - 93) has concluded the function of stūpas to be a visualization of “representing the Dhamma (teaching, path and realizations) and the enlightened personality embodying the culmination of Dhamma-practice”.  Abe suggested that the eight deities on the stūpa are probably meant for the purpose of Buddhist meditation and visualization.  Finally,.........."     

中文摘要    "版權所有 引用請註明出處"
   
        關於中國佛教地獄科層化經典的研究，太史文(Stephen Teiser) 所著的(The Scripture on the Ten Kings and the Making of Purgatory in Medieval Chinese Buddhism) 是西方學界中對於唐代以降佛教他界官僚體系化經典《十王經》形成的重要著作。不過這些他界觀的轉變，在許多南北朝以及隋唐時期與《人天教》相關的中國佛教經典如《淨度三昧經》、《提謂經》，已經成形。關於這類經典的形成，當前學者一般僅強調六朝以及隋唐時期佛經裡關於他界官僚體系的描述，是受到中國原有他界官僚概念的影響，而經文中的印度佛教元素卻往往被忽略。我認為這樣片面的研究觀點，無法完整呈現這些經書中的中印宗教元素是如何被融合的。研究這些經文脈絡中的印度佛教元素是同樣重要的。因為，他界的形象是摹仿自現世政治體制架構的宗教現象，並不僅僅存在於中國宗教中，也存在於許多古代宗教，包括印度佛教中。因此當我們在閱讀這些佛教經典時，不能僅從中國化的角度來看，而應更重視這些經典本身混合中印宗教文化的本質，從而理解何以兩個不同社會架構所發展出的他界觀，得以融合為一體的動機與原因。
      早期中國佛教他界觀科層化的敘述大多出現在南北朝時期與《人天教》相關的中國佛教經典的記述中，特別是齋戒日所涉及果報的執行與運作被描述是為由他界官僚所負責。本文追溯南北朝時期盛行一時的八王日齋的源起。八王日的起源，首現於《淨度三昧經》中的<八王日齋緣記>。該記事中描述在特定齋戒日，印度佛教與中國宗教他界官僚神祇會調查記錄世人的修為，依此回報。就其善惡，而有不同的果報、賞罰。本篇論文從經文內容的結構分析顯示，<八王日齋緣記>的內容其實是結合《增一阿含經》的<四天王經>中有關六齋日，以及道教《老子中經》裡關於八節日內容而成。兩者記事的主題都是關於在特定的齋戒日，他界神祇以類似世間官僚運作體系的方式，調查處理人界善惡修為。其中的敘述，則分別反映自古代印度與中國的官僚制度。對照中國官僚以文書記錄，印度佛教對人業報記錄的詮釋，依其俗，是記錄在貝葉及刻印在(金)銅板上。同時，<八王日齋緣記>中身份不明的八王使者，極可能就是《老子中經》中於八節日上計人間善惡的八卦神的假借。根據現存佛教經錄，此經譯者有可能是涼州出身的寶雲，據此，困擾中外考古學者數十年五世紀北涼佛塔底層神秘的八卦神王造像身分之謎，似乎即是《淨度三昧經》中所稱的八王使者。而石塔中如高善穆塔塔頂寶蓋上所刻北斗七星，似乎出自於《老子中經》中對相應於天之侯王的北斗君，人亦有之，乃在臍中的人之侯王太一君，有八使者(八卦神)於八節日上計人間善惡的的敘述段落有關。 (pp. 66 - 67;  p.70. 註釋 no.43)。

This paper deals with Population estimates for 8th c. Central Asia. It makes use of a whole range of sources, from Chinese 8th c. census to depictions of 10th c. Arabic geographers, archaeological maps of the distribution of sites, and to Russian 19th c. census. It aims not at being precise, but to provide very rough estimates and a sens of the global equilibrium between East Turkestan, West Turkestan, and the steppe.

During the period when Buddhism was initially transmitted to China, foreign monks played an important role, translating and copying Buddhist sūtras. On the basis of a comprehensive review of both literary sources and archaeological findings, especially manuscripts found at Dunhuang and Turfan, this article explores the work of several such monks who worked as bishou 筆受 (scribes). Before the mature standard script calligraphy was created in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the most distinctive calligraphic style was that of the Northern Liang, adopted by some court scribes in the national translation center. A comparison of the calligraphic styles of dated Buddhist manuscripts and stone inscriptions suggests that the Northern Liang Buddhist scriptural calligraphy was influenced by the Buddhist scribes from Central Asia.

佛教初傳中國，胡漢合作翻譯佛經是佛教發展最重要的活動，從西晉竺法護到五胡十六國時期的曇無讖及鳩摩羅什，許多西域入華僧人參與佛經的譯寫，甚至為弘傳佛法努力學習中國書法，於譯場中擔任「筆受」、或發願抄寫流通佛經。在隋唐佛教寫經體的楷書模式成熟以前，敦煌與吐魯番出土北涼時期的佛經呈現風格獨特的北涼體，本文將從有紀年的北涼石刻與佛經寫本書法，探討北涼在沮渠蒙遜與高僧曇無讖合作推動佛教影響之下，出現中國書法史上最具胡風的北涼體宮廷書法風格。