This document defines variables and types of hypotheses used in research. It explains that a variable is anything that can vary, like qualities or behaviors, and are measurable. There are two main types of variables: independent variables, which are manipulated by the researcher, and dependent variables, which are measured and change in response to the independent variable. The document then describes seven different types of hypotheses used in research: simple, complex, empirical, null, alternative, causal, and associative hypotheses. It provides an example of each type of hypothesis to illustrate how they are used.
This document discusses different approaches to theory and research. It outlines three levels of theory (grand, mid-range, narrow) and three components (concepts, relationships, goals). It then describes three major approaches to knowing - positivist/empirical, interpretive, and critical - and how they differ in their views of ontology, epistemology, and axiology. Finally, it discusses three approaches to theory-building - covering law, rules, and systems - and describes the differences between pure and applied research.
Increasing apple consumption in over-60s has no effect on frequency of doctor's visits.
Does social media use affect
teenagers' mental health?
Teenagers who spend more than 2 hours per day on
social media will report higher levels of anxiety and
depression than those who spend less time.
Teenagers' time spent on social media has no effect on reported levels of anxiety and depression.
Does exercise improve cognitive
function in older adults?
Older adults who engage in regular exercise will
perform better on cognitive tests than those who do
not exercise regularly.
Regular exercise has no effect on cognitive test performance in older adults.
1) A hypothesis is a tentative statement proposed for testing through scientific investigation. It predicts the relationship between two or more variables.
2) Hypotheses guide research design and analysis by specifying the variables to be studied and their expected relationships.
3) The main types of hypotheses are simple, complex, directional, non-directional, null, and alternative. Hypotheses can also be classified as associative, causal, statistical, or research hypotheses.
In this ppt the viewer will able to know about Types of Experimental Design. During the research design what kind of experimental design is applicable? Why experimental design needed in experimental research. Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. (Example: Temperature & Time in reactor)
Portion explained:
1. Definition of Experimental research
2. Situations to conduct Experimental Research
3. Types of experimental research design
4. Pre-experimental research design
5. True experimental research design
6. Quasi-experimental research design
7. Advantages of experimental research
This document discusses hypotheses, including defining what a hypothesis is, the purpose of hypotheses, different types of hypotheses, and guidelines for formulating hypotheses. Specifically, it states that a hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, it guides research and allows relationships to be tested, there are null and alternative hypotheses as well as descriptive vs causal hypotheses, and hypotheses should be declarative sentences supported by evidence and establish a logical link to the research problem.
The document discusses key concepts related to formulating and testing hypotheses, including:
- Null and alternative hypotheses, which are mutually exclusive statements tested through sample analysis.
- Type I and Type II errors that can occur when making decisions to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
- The level of significance, critical region, and test statistics used to determine whether to reject the null hypothesis.
- The differences between one-tailed and two-tailed tests, parametric vs. non-parametric tests, and one-sample vs. two-sample tests.
The document outlines the key steps in the research process:
1) Establish the need for research and define the problem.
2) Conduct an extensive literature review to understand previous work.
3) Formulate clear research objectives and questions.
4) Determine an appropriate research design including data collection methods.
5) Collect, analyze, and interpret the data to draw conclusions and answer the research questions.
Internal and external validity (experimental validity)Jijo Varghese
This document discusses experimental validity, including internal and external validity. It defines internal validity as being about whether the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable. Threats to internal validity include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, regression, selection bias, mortality, and additive/interactive effects. External validity is about generalizing results beyond the experimental setting, and threats include interaction of selection/treatment, testing/treatment, setting/treatment, history/treatment, and the Hawthorne effect. Maintaining validity requires controlling for these threats in research design.
This document discusses theory building and testing. It defines a theory as a system of constructs and propositions that provide a logical explanation of a phenomenon. The process of theory building involves observation, description, categorization, analyzing patterns, generating hypotheses, and testing for validity. Theories frame research by directing questions and helping make sense of data. Theory building requires synthesizing literature to explain a phenomenon from a new perspective, while theory testing assesses if a chosen theory plausibly explains a phenomenon. Approaches to theory building include grounded theory, bottom-up conceptual analysis, extending or modifying existing theories, and applying theories to new contexts.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a single entity within its real-world context. The document discusses case study paradigms, types including intrinsic and instrumental, purposes such as explanatory and exploratory, designs including single and multiple case, methodology involving data collection from documentation and interviews, and analysis techniques like pattern matching. It also reviews issues in reporting case studies and lists some merits like understanding contemporary contexts and demerits like lack of generalization.
Ethnography is a branch of anthropology that focuses on understanding a culture from the perspective of the people in that culture. There are two main types: micro ethnography, which studies narrow aspects of a culture, and macro ethnography, which examines broader aspects. Ethnographic research involves observing and interacting with people in their natural environment over an extended period of time to understand their cultural behaviors, artifacts, and speech. It provides health providers insights into cultural beliefs and practices that influence people's health.
This document discusses hypotheses in research. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Good hypotheses are conceptual, empirical, objective, specific, relevant, testable, consistent, simple, and verifiable. Hypotheses guide research by linking theory to practice and determining appropriate methods. Characteristics of strong hypotheses and different types (e.g. research, null, directional) are explained. The document also covers formulating hypotheses through background knowledge, intellectual versatility, analogy, and deductive reasoning from theories.
This document outlines the key differences between positivism and interpretivism research approaches. Positivism assumes objective social facts and influences on society, using quantitative data collection and aiming for objectivity. Interpretivism views reality as constructed by individual meanings and actions resulting from personal meanings rather than external forces, using qualitative data and focusing on subjective meaning. Positivism takes a macro approach seeking reliability through detached research, while interpretivism takes a micro approach developing rapport and emphasizing validity through unstructured interviews and observation.
Nonparametric tests can analyze ordinal or nominal data without assumptions about the population distribution. They include the chi-square test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, median test, and sign test. SPSS examples demonstrate using the binomial test to compare a proportion to 50%, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test to check normality, and Kruskal-Wallis to compare more than two independent groups.
This document discusses hypotheses in research. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Good hypotheses are specific, empirically testable, and manageable. Researchers develop hypotheses to give direction to their research and focus their study. There are different types of hypotheses, including simple, complex, working, null, and alternative hypotheses. Once a hypothesis is developed, researchers select a research design to collect data, such as descriptive or experimental methods, to test their hypothesis.
The document defines and discusses hypotheses in research contexts. It provides that a hypothesis is a formal, testable statement of the expected relationship between independent and dependent variables. The document outlines several definitions of a hypothesis provided by authors and discusses the key characteristics of a good hypothesis. It also differentiates between different types of hypotheses such as universal, existential, null, alternate, non-directional, directional, and research hypotheses. The purpose, components, and process of hypothesis making and testing are described.
The document discusses different types of hypotheses used in research studies, including simple, complex, empirical, null, alternative, statistical, directional, non-directional, causal, and associative hypotheses. It defines each type of hypothesis and provides examples. The document also covers the functions, characteristics, and contributions of hypotheses in structuring research problems and guiding the research process.
Here are the 5 steps to solve this hypothesis testing problem:
1. State the null (H0) and alternative (H1) hypotheses:
H0: μ = 80
H1: μ ≠ 80
2. Choose the significance level: α = 0.05
3. Identify the test statistic and its distribution:
Test statistic is z-score = (Sample Mean - Population Mean) / Standard Error
Distribution is standard normal
4. Calculate the test statistic value:
z = (84 - 80) / (10/√39) = 0.4/1.26 = 0.316
5. Make a decision:
For a two-tailed test, reject
This document discusses research hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis helps translate research problems into clear predictions about expected outcomes. Hypotheses are derived from literature reviews and conceptual frameworks. The main types discussed are research hypotheses, null hypotheses, and testable hypotheses. Research hypotheses make predictions, while null hypotheses predict no relationship. Testable hypotheses involve measurable variables. Variables are also discussed, including independent, dependent, extraneous, and demographic variables. Assumptions and limitations of research are briefly covered.
This document discusses hypotheses, which are tentative theories or educated guesses about the real world or a population. A hypothesis aims to explain facts and makes testable predictions about what may happen in certain circumstances. Research hypotheses are created by researchers to speculate about the outcome of an experiment. There are two main kinds of hypotheses: the null hypothesis, which expresses no difference or relationship, and the alternative hypothesis, which is accepted if the null is rejected. When testing a hypothesis, there is a chance of making Type I or Type II errors in rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis.
The document outlines the steps to formulate a hypothesis for research. It defines what a hypothesis is, discusses the types of hypotheses (null and alternative), and lists advantages of developing a hypothesis. The key steps provided are: define the research problem, analyze the problem in-depth, define research objectives, and articulate the hypothesis. Hypotheses can be developed through various means like literature review, observations, and prior studies. The document also provides an example of formulating hypotheses for a study on customer preferences and usage of cashless payments.
Introduction to hypothesis testing ppt @ bec domsBabasab Patil
This document introduces hypothesis testing, including:
- Formulating null and alternative hypotheses for tests involving population means and proportions
- Using test statistics, critical values, and p-values to test hypotheses
- Defining Type I and Type II errors and their probabilities
- Examples of hypothesis tests for means (using z-tests and t-tests) and proportions (using z-tests) are provided to illustrate the concepts.
Hypothesis testing involves 4 steps: 1) stating the null and alternative hypotheses, 2) setting the significance level criteria, 3) computing a test statistic to evaluate the hypotheses, and 4) making a decision to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis based on the significance level and test statistic. The goal is to correctly identify true null hypotheses while minimizing errors like falsely rejecting a true null hypothesis (Type I error) or retaining a false null hypothesis (Type II error).
Developing a Hypothesis and Title for your ExperimentJeremy Mularella
The document discusses how to develop a hypothesis and title for a scientific experiment. It explains that a hypothesis predicts the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable in an "if...then" statement. Several examples are provided of hypotheses and experiment titles that follow the proper format of stating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. Guidance is given on key terms like "effect" versus "affect" and how to clearly define the independent and dependent variables.
This document outlines the key steps and concepts in hypothesis testing. It introduces hypothesis testing as a method to test conjectures about population parameters. The null hypothesis states that there is no difference or effect, while the alternative hypothesis specifies an expected difference or effect. Steps in hypothesis testing include stating hypotheses, determining critical values, defining critical and noncritical regions, and making a decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis. Type I and type II errors are also defined. The document provides examples and outlines objectives for understanding hypothesis testing of means, proportions, variances and using confidence intervals.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis testing including:
- Defining null and alternative hypotheses
- Types of errors like Type I and Type II
- Test statistics and significance levels for comparing means, proportions, and standard deviations of one and two populations
- Examples are given for hypothesis tests on population means, proportions, and comparing two population means.
The document discusses hypothesis testing in research. It defines a hypothesis as a proposition that can be tested scientifically. The key points are:
- A hypothesis aims to explain a phenomenon and can be tested objectively. Common hypotheses compare two groups or variables.
- Statistical hypothesis testing involves a null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (Ha). H0 is the initial assumption being tested, while Ha is what would be accepted if H0 is rejected.
- Type I errors incorrectly reject a true null hypothesis. Type II errors fail to reject a false null hypothesis. Hypothesis tests aim to control the probability of type I errors.
- The significance level is the probability of a type I error,
The document discusses hypotheses in research. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses help translate research problems into clear predictions and guide investigation. They provide objectivity, direction for data collection, and goals for researchers. Well-stated hypotheses are testable, consistent with existing knowledge, and help establish a link between theory and empirical research. Different types of hypotheses, such as simple, complex, associative, causal, directional, and null hypotheses are described. Sources for developing hypotheses include theoretical frameworks, previous research findings, literature, and experiences.
The document discusses research methods that can be used when conducting research with children, including participant observation, open-ended questions, focus groups, and visual and task-based techniques. Some effective visual and task-based techniques include drawing, maps, photography, spider diagrams, and role plays. These techniques allow children to express themselves through visual means and activities rather than just talking, as children may be uncomfortable speaking directly or at length with researchers.
The document discusses the scientific method and variables. It explains that variables are the building blocks of hypotheses and can have different definitions, functions, and measurement scales. The key types of variables are independent, dependent, and control, and variables should be operationally defined whenever possible to make constructs measurable.
This document discusses hypothesis, including its definition, characteristics, types, formulation, and testing. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to explain certain facts or observations that can be tested. It should be clear, testable, relate variables, be specific and consistent. The main types are the null, prediction, declarative, and question forms. When testing a hypothesis, the researcher specifies a null hypothesis and alternative, selects a significance level like 5% typically, decides on a distribution, selects samples, computes a test statistic, and compares it to the significance level to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis, avoiding type 1 and 2 errors.
This document discusses the formulation, testing, and importance of research hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative assumption or predictive statement that can be tested scientifically. The key points covered include: how to properly formulate a hypothesis by ensuring it has conceptual clarity, is testable, and relates independent and dependent variables; the importance of hypotheses in providing direction for research and advancing knowledge; methods for testing hypotheses, including checking logical consistency and agreement with facts; and defining the process of rejecting or modifying a hypothesis based on testing results.
This document provides a teaching guide for a 7th grade math lesson on sets. It introduces concepts like well-defined sets, subsets, universal sets, and the null set. Students will use Venn diagrams to represent sets and subsets. The lesson defines terms like union and intersection of sets and teaches students to perform set operations and use symbols and notations related to sets.
In this presentation we answer the question, "Why do we need hypothesis tests in process improvement?" Then we walk you through a real, live hypothesis test direct from the Bahama Bistro!
You can find the rest of the webinar materials and questions from the webinar here:
https://goleansixsigma.com/webinar-set-run-hypothesis-tests/
Presentation deals with scientific process of Hypothesis formulation. Presentation would quench the thirst of beginners in social sciences researchers especially in commerce and Management towards basic understanding of Research Issues, Statement of Research Problem formulating hypothesis and research protocol. Presentation attempts to simplify process of narrowing the research problem from research issue and helps to formulate hypothesis scientifically. Deciding on appropriate title to research is equally important, this presentation discusses different context which helps to decide on appropriate title. Presentation includes case study examples for sound understanding.
The document discusses hypothesis testing and provides examples to illustrate the process. It explains how to state the research question and hypotheses, set the decision rule, calculate test statistics, decide if results are significant, and interpret the findings. An example tests if narcissistic individuals look in the mirror more often than others and finds they do based on a test statistic exceeding the critical value. A second example finds no significant difference in recovery time for patients with or without social support after surgery.
This document provides information on hypotheses in research. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement proposed to explain certain facts or observations. A hypothesis should be specific, testable, and stated in advance of data collection. Hypotheses can be categorized as null or research hypotheses based on their formulation. They can also be directional or non-directional based on whether they specify an expected direction of results. Hypotheses are either deductively or inductively derived depending on whether they are tested top-down from existing theory or built bottom-up from observations.
This document discusses hypothesis formulation in research. It defines a hypothesis as a statement about the relationship between two or more variables that is tested in a research study. A complete hypothesis includes the variables, population, and relationship between variables. There are different types of variables, populations, and relationships that can be included in a hypothesis. The document also outlines different types of hypotheses like simple, complex, directional, and non-directional and discusses how to properly formulate a hypothesis. Formulating a good hypothesis is important as it provides focus, direction, and guides the research process.
This document provides an overview of hypotheses for a presentation. It begins with learning outcomes which are to explain the meaning and significance of hypotheses, identify types of hypotheses, and illustrate why hypotheses are needed.
The presentation will cover the scientific method, meaning and types of variables, characteristics of good hypotheses, categories of hypotheses including null and alternative, and how to form and test hypotheses. Hypotheses are defined as educated guesses that relate variables and guide research. They must be testable, falsifiable, and contribute to theory. Hypotheses can be categorized by their formulation as null or alternative, by direction as directional or non-directional, and by their derivation as inductive or deductive.
Here is the refined hypothesis based on the last homework:
If temperature affects leaf color change, then exposing maple tree leaves to temperatures below 10°C for a period of 2 weeks will result in the leaves changing color from green to shades of red, orange, and yellow earlier than maple tree leaves not exposed to low temperatures.
The independent variable is temperature, and the dependent variable is the timing of leaf color change. The hypothesis predicts that exposing leaves to low temperatures (below 10°C) for 2 weeks will cause them to change color earlier than leaves not exposed to low temperatures.
This document provides an overview of hypotheses in research methodology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative explanation or educated guess about a research problem or outcome. There are several types of hypotheses, including research hypotheses (simple or complex), directional vs. non-directional, associative vs. causal, statistical vs. null hypotheses. Variables are also defined, including independent and dependent variables. Formulating a strong hypothesis requires an understanding of the topic area and existing research findings. Overall, hypotheses help focus research and provide a framework for analyzing results.
This document discusses hypotheses in quantitative research. It defines a hypothesis and explains that hypotheses provide focus to a study by indicating what aspects to investigate and what data to collect. A hypothesis must be simple, specific, verifiable, and related to existing knowledge. There are different types of hypotheses, including the research hypothesis, null hypothesis, and hypothesis of difference. Testing a hypothesis involves constructing it, gathering evidence, and analyzing evidence to draw conclusions about its validity. Errors can occur in testing if the study design, sampling, data collection, analysis, or conclusions are faulty. In qualitative research, hypotheses are not emphasized or constructed since the focus is on describing and understanding phenomena.
This document discusses hypotheses, including:
1. A hypothesis is a prediction about possible outcomes of a study used to direct research. An example hypothesis predicts staff trained in change management will cope better with organizational changes.
2. Hypotheses should explain facts, direct relevant data collection, and prevent blind searches. They clarify research goals.
3. For a hypothesis to be good, it must be clear, testable, consistent with facts, and better than alternative hypotheses.
The document provides summaries of different types of research designs, including their definitions, purposes, advantages, and limitations. It discusses exploratory, descriptive, experimental, causal, cohort, case study, action research, cross-sectional, and market research designs. For each design, it outlines what information can be learned from studies using that design and what limitations exist in determining causation or generalizing findings. The overall purpose is to help readers understand when and how to appropriately apply different research methodologies.
This document discusses research methodology and the concept of hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about a problem's solution that can be empirically tested. The document outlines the key characteristics of hypotheses, including that they are conceptual, declarative statements that reference empirical variables and have a future orientation toward verification. Hypotheses are important as they focus research, guide the investigator, and prevent blind searches for data. Different types of hypotheses are discussed, including question, declarative statement, directional statement, and null forms.
Net coaching & remedial classes p 1 part 2 researchBhumi Dangi
hello there!!! so as part of lock-down situation, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar university started conduction online classes for upcoming NET examination. As part of that, i have been uploading series of Research Aptitude related stuff. paper code 30, English literature, research unit 10. and this slideshare is about paper 1. other pt also i've uploaded.
The systematic investigation into and study of materials, sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Research is what we do when we have a question or a problem we want to resolve. Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. The first module highlights an overview of all concepts adopted in Research.
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A Research Study On Quantitative AnalysisBarb Tillich
This document discusses research philosophy, specifically positivism and interpretivism. Positivism adheres to knowledge based on factual information through observable data collection methods that are mostly quantifiable and measurable. Interpretivism interprets variables through socially constructed measures like language and instruments. The document will adopt a positivism philosophy to keep with the research aim and objectives, as variables can be quantifiably observed through statistical analysis of a large sample.
1. A hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to explain a phenomenon or guide an investigation. It can be a conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables that can be tested.
2. The main functions of a hypothesis are to provide focus for a study by specifying what aspects to investigate and what data to collect. Developing a hypothesis enhances objectivity.
3. For a hypothesis to be testable and useful for a study, it should be simple, specific, conceptually clear, capable of being verified, and related to existing knowledge. The outcome of testing a hypothesis may prove it right, partially right, or wrong.
This document discusses hypothesis construction in research methodology. It defines a hypothesis as a proposed explanation or relationship between variables that is testable but unproven. Hypotheses provide focus and direction for a study by indicating what data to collect. There are two main types: research hypotheses that predict a relationship, stated as equality; and alternative hypotheses that predict an alternative if the null is false, stated as inequality. Hypotheses must be simple, verifiable, related to existing knowledge, and operationalizable. Errors can occur if the study design, sampling, data collection, analysis, or conclusions are flawed. Qualitative research does not strictly require or test hypotheses but may formulate them to highlight phenomena and relationships.
Research Methodology Course - Unit 2a . pptsvarsastry
This document provides an overview of research methodology and design. It defines research as a systematic investigation to establish facts. Research design refers to the systematic planning of a research study and aims to achieve research goals. Good research design has several key characteristics - it is theory-grounded, feasible, efficient, and flexible. The main components of research design are the title, problem statement, objectives, variables, hypotheses, sampling, and data collection and analysis. Experimental and non-experimental are the two main types of research designs. Hypotheses help guide the research by offering testable explanations of relationships between variables.
The document discusses various topics related to research methodology including definitions of research, types of research, research methods, sampling techniques, data collection methods, and experimental research. Some key points:
- Research is defined as a systematic effort to gain new knowledge through objective and scientific methods. It involves identifying a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings.
- There are different types of research including descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, qualitative, and more. Research methods can be quantitative, qualitative, experimental, case study, etc.
- Important steps in research include formulating the problem, literature review, developing hypotheses, research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, testing hypotheses,
Research is defined as a systematic effort to gain new knowledge. It involves formulating a research problem, conducting a literature review, developing hypotheses, designing a study, collecting and analyzing data, and reporting findings. The goal of research is to discover answers to questions through objective and systematic methods of finding solutions.
UNIT II - Identification of Problem & Review of Literature
Problems in research – identification of research problem,
Research objectives and Research Hypothesis,
Research question
Questionnaire and Interview Schedule.
How to Store Data on the Odoo 17 WebsiteCeline George
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Advertising: Concept, Features, Evolution of Advertising, Active Participants, Benefits of advertising to Business firms and consumers.
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Still I Rise by Maya Angelou
-Table of Contents
● Questions to be Addressed
● Introduction
● About the Author
● Analysis
● Key Literary Devices Used in the Poem
1. Simile
2. Metaphor
3. Repetition
4. Rhetorical Question
5. Structure and Form
6. Imagery
7. Symbolism
● Conclusion
● References
-Questions to be Addressed
1. How does the meaning of the poem evolve as we progress through each stanza?
2. How do similes and metaphors enhance the imagery in "Still I Rise"?
3. What effect does the repetition of certain phrases have on the overall tone of the poem?
4. How does Maya Angelou use symbolism to convey her message of resilience and empowerment?
Principles of Roods Approach!!!!!!!.pptxibtesaam huma
Principles of Rood’s Approach
Treatment technique used in physiotherapy for neurological patients which aids them to recover and improve quality of life
Facilitatory techniques
Inhibitory techniques
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Front desk officers are responsible for taking care of guests and customers. Their work mainly involves interacting with customers and business partners, either in person or through phone calls.
Satta Matka Dpboss Kalyan Matka Results Kalyan ChartMohit Tripathi
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With Odoo, we can select from a wide selection of attractive themes. Many excellent ones are free to use, while some require payment. Putting an Odoo theme in the Odoo module directory on our server, downloading the theme, and then installing it is a simple process.
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In Odoo, the pivot view is a graphical representation of data that allows users to analyze and summarize large datasets quickly. It's a powerful tool for generating insights from your business data.
The pivot view in Odoo is a valuable tool for analyzing and summarizing large datasets, helping you gain insights into your business operations.
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1. Seminar Presentation on
Research Hypotheses
BY: Gizachew Asrat
(Ph.D., Candidate)
Department of Political Science
Punjabi University, Patiala, India
Nov, 2016
2. INTRODUCTION
Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
One can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
Research comprises
Defining and redefining problems,
Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
Collecting, organising and evaluating data;
Making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
At last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Having this in mind lets come to the idea of research
hypothesis.
3. Cont….
1. Definition of Research Hypotheses
The Etymological meaning, according to Kumar Singh
(2006), of hypothesis is from two Greek roots: Hypo +
thesis = Hypothesis
Hypo means:
tentative or subject to verification
composition of two or more variables which is to be verified
‘Thesis’ means:
statement about solution of a problem.
position of these variables in the specific frame of reference
4. Continuation
So hypothesis is:
a tentative statement about the solution of the problem.
the composition of some variables which have some specific
position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically
a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem
A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research
problem, expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation
between the Variable.
5. Continuation
Why a tentative answer or solution for a research problem?
Because they can be verified only after they have been tested
empirically.
Hypothesis is a more formal means of stating expected research
outcomes, more firmly fixing the direction of a study.
Kerlinger (1986)
hypothesis is a conjectural/unproven statement of the
relationship between two or more variables.
o According to Grinnell: A hypothesis is written in such a way
that it can be proven or disproven by valid and reliable data
– it is in order to obtain these data that we perform our study
(1988: 200)
6. Continuation
According to Ranjit Kumar (2014:98), hypotheses bring
clarity, specificity and focus to a research problem, but are
not essential for a study.
You can conduct a valid investigation without constructing a
single formal hypothesis.
How many hypotheses a researcher should have in a
single research?
Within the context of a research study, you can construct as
many hypotheses as you consider to be appropriate.
7. Continuation
Important terminologies in a hypothesis:
1) Variable: a characteristic that can vary from one unit of analysis
to another or for one unit of analysis over time
2) Dependent variable: a variable that a researcher sees as being
affected or influenced by another variable
3) Independent variable: a variable that a researcher sees as
affecting or influencing another variable
4) Concepts: words or signs that refer to phenomena that share
common characteristics
5) Conceptualization: the process of clarifying what we mean by a
concept
We can exemplify it with real research title.
8. Continuation
If, for example, my title of investigation is on “education and vote”
Then, The more education people have the more likely they are to vote.
Here Vote is a dependent variable while education is the independent
variable.
Or As income inequality increase civil disobedience is more likely to
occur i.e income IV and civil disobedience DV
2. Characteristics of A Good Research Hypothesis
The wording of a hypothesis must have certain attributes that make it
easier for a researcher to ascertain its validity. These attributes are:
1) A hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually clear
For example: The average age of the male students in this class
is higher than that of the female students
9. Continuation
2) A hypothesis should be capable of verification
3) A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge
4) A hypothesis should be operationalisable and it should be empirically
testable (‘God is Great’ is not a hypothesis)
5. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable
time. One cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
6. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific
7. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms
so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned
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2.1. Hypotheses in Qualitative Researches
The differences in qualitative and quantitative research is the importance
attached to and the extent of use of hypotheses when conducting a study.
As qualitative studies are characterised by an emphasis on describing,
understanding and exploring phenomena using categorical and subjective
measurement procedures, so hypothesis is not practiced
The non-specificity of the problem as well as methods and procedures which
make not to formulate hypothesis
However, it does not mean that you cannot construct hypotheses in qualitative
research.
In qualitative research, hypotheses are rarely stated at the outset, because most
qualitative researchers believe social behaviour is complex and transitory,
and does not consist of constant regularities.
Human actions therefore do not follow ‘laws’.
11. Continuation
Even within quantitative studies the importance attached to
and the practice of formulating hypotheses vary markedly
from one academic discipline to another.
hypotheses are most prevalent in research relating to the
establishment of causality of a phenomenon, where it
becomes important to narrow the list of probable causes so
that a specific cause-and-effect relationship can be studied.
In the social sciences formulation of hypotheses is mostly
dependent on the researcher and the academic discipline
12. Continuation
Kerlinger and Lee (2000 cited in Thomas, 2002: 30-35)
suggest two criteria for acceptable hypotheses:
a) A hypothesis should be statements of possible relationships
between variables, and
b) These statements should imply how they are to be tested.
4. Types of Hypothesis
According to Ranjit Kumar (2014), theoretically there
should be only one type of hypothesis that is the research
hypothesis – the basis of your investigation.
13. Continuation
There are two broad categories of hypothesis:
1. Research hypotheses;
2. Alternate hypotheses.
The main function of alternative hypothesis is to explicitly
specify the relationship that will be considered as true in case the
research hypothesis proves to be wrong.
Alternate hypothesis is the opposite of the research hypothesis.
Conventionally, a null hypothesis, or hypothesis of no difference,
is formulated as an alternate hypothesis.
Ways to formulate hypotheses are:
14. Continuation
For example: Suppose you want to study the smoking
pattern in a community in relation to gender differentials.
The following hypotheses could be constructed:
1. There is no significant difference in the proportion of male
and female smokers in the study population_ null
hypothesis usually written as Ho.
2. A greater proportion of females than males are smokers in
the study population_ hypothesis of difference.
3. A total of 60 per cent of females and 30 per cent of males
in the study population are smokers_ a hypothesis of point-
prevalence.
15. Continuation
4. There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in the study
population_ a hypothesis of association.
4.1. Testing of Hypothesis
Testing of hypothesis employs statistical procedures in which the
investigator draws inferences about the population from a study sample.
To test a hypothesis you need to go through a process that comprises
three phases:
(1) constructing a hypothesis;
(2) gathering appropriate evidence; and
(3) analysing evidence to draw conclusions as to its validity
It is only after analysing the evidence that you can conclude whether
your hunch or hypothesis was true or false.
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Incorrect conclusions (errors in testing hypothesis) about the
validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if:
The study design selected is faulty;
The sampling procedure adopted is faulty;
The method of data collection is inaccurate;
The analysis is wrong;
The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate; or
The conclusions drawn are incorrect
Any, some or all, of this making conclusions misleading.
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5. The Importance of Hypothesis
A hypothesis serves the following functions:
1. The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus.
It tells you what specific aspects of a research problem to
investigate.
2. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to
collect, thereby providing focus to the study.
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3. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances
objectivity in a study.
4. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of theory.
It enables you to conclude specifically what is true or what is false.
6. Sources of Hypothesis
The major sources of hypotheses are:
1. Specialization of an educational field.
2. Programme of reading: Published studies, abstracts, research
journals. Hand books, seminars on the issue, current trends on
the research area
19. Continuation
3. Instructional programmes persuaded.
4. Analyse of the area studied
5. Considering existing practices and needs
6. Extension of the investigation
7. Offshoots of research studies in the field
Therefore, in general speaking, in most studies the hypothesis will
be based upon either previous studies or once own or someone
else’s observations.