Sleep disorders are characterized by disturbances in sleep amount, quality, or timing. There are over 70 different sleep disorders divided into two main categories - dyssomnias involving problems falling or staying asleep, and parasomnias involving abnormal behaviors during sleep. The document provides detailed descriptions of common sleep disorders like insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, circadian rhythm disorders, nightmares, and sleep terrors. Diagnostic criteria are also outlined for each disorder.
This document discusses narcolepsy, a chronic sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness. It defines narcolepsy and explains its symptoms like cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hallucinations. The document also covers how narcolepsy is diagnosed through polysomnograms and multiple sleep latency tests. While there is no cure, treatment focuses on controlling symptoms through stimulant drugs, antidepressants, and lifestyle changes. The document provides statistics on narcolepsy's prevalence and potential complications.
The document discusses parasomnias, which are abnormal behaviors or movements that occur during sleep or sleep transitions. It describes the different stages of sleep based on EEG patterns. It then discusses various parasomnias like sleepwalking, sleep terrors, confusional arousals, REM sleep behavior disorder, nightmares, and sleep paralysis. It provides details on characteristics, typical age of onset, precipitating factors, treatment options. It also discusses disorders like sleep talking, catathrenia, hypnic jerks, and excessive fragmentary myoclonus that are common and clinically insignificant. The document outlines investigations like polysomnography and neurological imaging that can help evaluate parasomnias.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on sleep disorders organized into three main sections: physiology of normal sleep, disordered sleep, and sleep studies. It describes the stages and cycles of normal sleep including NREM and REM sleep. It discusses several common sleep disorders like insomnia, narcolepsy, restless leg syndrome, sleep apnea, and parasomnias. It also covers sleep disturbances related to medical, neurological and psychiatric conditions. Finally, it provides an overview of polysomnography and its clinical applications in diagnosing and managing various sleep disorders.
This document provides information about various sleep disorders. It begins with definitions and descriptions of normal sleep stages. It then discusses specific sleep disorders like insomnia, hypersomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, restless leg syndrome and circadian rhythm disorders. Diagnosis involves questionnaires, sleep diaries and polysomnography. Treatment depends on the disorder but may include lifestyle changes, medications, therapies and surgery. Sleep disorders can negatively impact quality of life so proper diagnosis and management is important.
This document discusses insomnia and normal sleep patterns. It provides details on:
1) The stages of the normal sleep cycle and how sleep needs change throughout life from childhood to older age.
2) Insomnia as a common sleep disorder defined by difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep that impairs daytime functioning.
3) Factors that can cause insomnia like medical conditions, medications, and psychiatric disorders.
4) Treatments for insomnia including sleeping pills, cognitive behavioral therapy, sleep restriction, stimulus control, and improving sleep hygiene.
This document provides an overview of sleep, including its definition, stages, neurobiology, and relevance to psychiatry. It describes the two main types of sleep - REM and NREM sleep - and the different stages of NREM sleep. The neurobiology of sleep and wakefulness involves separate but interacting systems in the brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain. Key structures and neurotransmitters that promote wakefulness include the ascending reticular activating system, locus ceruleus, tuberomamillary nucleus, pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, and hypocretin. Age and circadian rhythms also influence sleep patterns.
NREM sleep accounts for 75-80% of sleep time in adults and is divided into 3 stages - N1, N2, and N3. REM sleep makes up the remaining 20-25% and is characterized by low muscle tone and rapid eye movements. Common sleep disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and narcolepsy. Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common sleep disorder and involves repetitive pauses in breathing during sleep due to upper airway collapse. Narcolepsy involves irresistible daytime sleep attacks and loss of muscle tone in response to emotions.
sleep disorders contains dyssomnias ,parasomnias ,and sleep disorder associated with other major medical disorders . Restless leg syndrome and PLM are also covered here. this ppt also shows how to differentiate between sleep terror and night mares . treatment of sleep disorders also included.
This document summarizes several primary sleep disorders, including dyssomnias and parasomnias. It provides detailed information on primary insomnia, primary hypersomnia, narcolepsy, and breathing-related sleep disorders. Key details include diagnostic criteria, associated features, prevalence, course, and specific characteristics of each disorder. Specific pages cover topics like insomnia symptoms, hypersomnia symptoms, narcolepsy symptoms including cataplexy, and the three forms of breathing-related sleep disorders.
The document discusses sleep statistics, definitions, sleep cycles, factors affecting sleep, categories and sections of sleep disorders, sleep hygiene, and sleep assessment and management. It provides information on average sleep needs by age, sleep definitions, sleep cycles, factors influencing sleep like physical activity, stress, diet, smoking and environment. It describes categories of sleep disorders like dyssomnias involving too little or too much sleep, parasomnias involving abnormal events during sleep, and sleep disorders related to other conditions. Treatment options for different sleep disorders include lifestyle changes, medications, therapy and managing the underlying condition.
This document summarizes the key points from a sleep presentation. It discusses what constitutes normal sleep, common sleep disorders like insomnia, sleep apnea, and consequences of abnormal sleep. It also covers how lifestyle factors like routines, medications, and naps can help improve sleep quality. Specific sections summarize findings on women's sleep, how their biology and life stages impact sleep, and the effects of poor sleep on health.
The document discusses various topics related to sleep including:
1. Sleep accounts for about 1/3 of our lifetime and 1/3 of the population has a sleep disorder.
2. Sleep is regulated by our circadian rhythm located in the hypothalamus and lasts approximately 24 hours.
3. A normal sleep cycle occurs every 90 minutes and includes NREM sleep, which accounts for 70-80% of sleep, and REM sleep, which accounts for 20-25% of sleep.
4. More than 80 known sleep disorders are classified as dyssomnias involving difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep or daytime sleepiness, or parasomnias involving abnormal events during sleep.
This document discusses sleep physiology and sleep disorders. It begins by defining sleep and outlining the three basic physiological processes of wakefulness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. It then describes sleep architecture and the stages of NREM and REM sleep in detail. Key aspects of sleep such as circadian rhythms, sleep requirements, neurobiology, and disorders like insomnia are also summarized. The document provides an overview of normal sleep patterns and processes as well as common sleep disorders.
The document discusses sleep disorders and the measurement and stages of sleep. It provides details on:
1) How sleep is measured using EEG, EOG, and EMG electrodes to record brain waves, eye movements, and muscle activity.
2) The stages of sleep including NREM stages 1-4 and REM sleep, characterized by different brain wave patterns.
3) Common sleep disorders like insomnia, hypersomnia, sleep apnea, circadian rhythm disorders and parasomnias. Treatment options are also outlined.
Classification of sleep disorders and parasomniasEnoch R G
Sleep is made up of two physiological states: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. There are several brain regions and neurotransmitters that regulate the sleep-wake cycle, including serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, melatonin, and dopamine. Sleep disorders are classified in the DSM-5 and ICSD-2 and include insomnia, sleep-related breathing disorders, hypersomnias, circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, parasomnias, and other sleep-related movement disorders.
Narcolepsy is a chronic disorder of the central nervous system characterized by the brain's inability to control sleep-wake cycles. At various times throughout the day, people with narcolepsy experience irresistible and sudden bouts of sleep, which can last from a few seconds to several minutes.
The document discusses stages of sleep including REM and non-REM sleep. It describes the five stages of a sleep cycle, including stage 1 and 2 non-REM sleep, stage 3 deep sleep, and REM sleep. Characteristics of each stage are provided such as brain wave patterns, muscle tone, and the occurrence of dreams in REM sleep. Common sleep disorders are also summarized such as insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and effects of medications, medical conditions, and aging on sleep. Treatments for insomnia including sleep hygiene, therapy, and medications are outlined. The diagnostic criteria for insomnia and narcolepsy are also presented.
The document provides information on sleep patterns and disturbances. It defines sleep and describes the physiology of sleep including the reticulating activating system and sleep stages. It discusses non-REM and REM sleep in detail. It also covers sleep requirements and patterns across the lifespan as well as common sleep disorders like insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and sleep deprivation. Finally, it briefly mentions parasomnias.
This document provides an overview of various sleep disorders including:
1. Dyssomnias are primary sleep disorders involving changes in sleep amount, quality or timing including insomnia, hypersomnia, and narcolepsy.
2. Parasomnias are disorders where sleep physiology or behaviors are affected, such as nightmares.
3. Circadian rhythm sleep disorders result from a mismatch between sleep-wake patterns and environmental demands like jet lag or shift work.
4. Breathing-related sleep disorders interrupt sleep through breathing problems like sleep apnea.
Sleep and rest, BSC NURSING FIRST YEAR NURSING FOUNDATION , UNIT X , MEETING NEEDS OF PATIENT , PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP, SLEEP DISORDERS, FACTORS AFFECTING SLEEP, PROMOTING SLEEP AND STAGES OF SLEEP.
This PPT aims to give Knowledge and Understanding about Sleep Talking, Types of Sleep Disorder, Stages of Sleep, Factor of Effecting Sleep Talking, Causes of Sleep Talking, Risk and Concern Associated with Sleep Talking, Diagnosis of Sleep Talking, Treatment of Sleep Talking.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to sleep including definitions of sleep and rest, the two types of sleep (NREM and REM), sleep cycles and stages, factors that affect sleep, functions of sleep, and common sleep disorders. It also discusses nursing assessments of sleep and potential nursing diagnoses and interventions to promote healthy sleep.
This document provides an overview of sleep, sleep disturbances, and sleep disorders. It discusses the physiology and stages of normal sleep, including non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. It describes factors that affect sleep such as circadian rhythms, lifestyle, environment, and medications. Common sleep disorders are explained, including insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and parasomnias. Diagnostic tests and treatments for sleep disturbances are also summarized.
Continuum of Consciousness
- Controlled and Automatic Processes
- Altered States of Consciousness
- Psychoactive Drugs
- Sleep and Dreams
- Different Stages of Sleep (REM and N-REM)
- 4 Major Questions About Sleep
- Sleep Disorders
- The Unconscious Mind
- Unconsciousness
This document discusses normal sleep patterns and stages of sleep. It describes the stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. It then discusses factors that can affect sleep stages and cycles, including sleep disorders, sleep deprivation, stress, and environment. The document also summarizes sleep patterns in infants, adults, and elderly persons. Finally, it discusses non-organic sleep disorders like insomnia, and treatments for insomnia including sleep hygiene, behavioral therapy, relaxation techniques, sleep restriction, stimulus control, and medications.
Sleep is essential for normal functioning and survival. It helps the body and brain restore and repair. There are different sleep stages that provide different benefits. Most adults need 7-9 hours of sleep per night, though individual needs vary. Lack of sufficient sleep can seriously impair performance and health, increasing risks of accidents, illness, and mental health issues.
The document discusses various topics related to consciousness and sleep. It covers 3 main topics:
1) The different states of consciousness from fully awake to asleep, including daydreaming and altered states. Sleep has 5 stages and involves different types of awareness.
2) The stages of sleep including REM sleep where dreaming occurs and non-REM sleep with 4 stages. Sleep cycles through the stages approximately every 90 minutes.
3) Various sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea, as well as theories about the functions and causes of sleep. Drug use and types of drugs are also summarized.
This document summarizes key aspects of sleep and sleep disorders. It discusses the physiological changes that occur during the different sleep stages of NREM and REM sleep. It also outlines different types of sleep disorders including dyssomnias like insomnia and hypersomnia, and parasomnias involving abnormal events during sleep. Specific disorders covered include sleepwalking, night terrors, sleep talking and bruxism. Nursing assessments and interventions for managing sleep disorders are also summarized.
Drugs used in the management of anxiety disorders.pdfEugenMweemba
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This document provides an overview of sleep disorders including insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, breathing-related sleep disorders, circadian rhythm disorders, parasomnias, and jet lag. It discusses the stages of normal sleep including light, intermediate, deep, and REM sleep. It covers causes, symptoms, and treatments for different sleep disorders. The functions of sleep are also reviewed including restoring the body, boosting immunity and mood, and facilitating memory processing.
This document provides an overview of sleep and sleep disorders. It defines sleep and describes the four stages of the sleep cycle: NREM Stages 1-3 and REM Stage. Common sleep disorders like sleep apnea, insomnia, narcolepsy, sleepwalking and sleep terrors are explained, including causes, symptoms and ways to prevent each. Finally, tips are provided for falling asleep fast, such as setting the right temperature, avoiding electronics before bed, and maintaining a regular sleep schedule.
This document discusses sleep disorders and provides information on various types of sleep disorders including dyssomnias, parasomnias, and disorders of sleep-wake schedules. It describes insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, Kleine-Levin syndrome and other sleep disorders. It also discusses assessments and treatments for sleep disorders as well as nursing diagnoses and interventions to promote restful sleep.
This document defines sleep and rest, compares their characteristics, and discusses sleep patterns and disorders. It outlines two types of sleep - NREM and REM sleep - and explains their stages and functions. Factors affecting sleep and common sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea are identified. Nursing interventions to promote sleep through environmental changes, relaxation techniques, and medication administration if needed are also discussed.
Sleep has two types - rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. REM sleep is associated with dreaming and eye movements while NREM sleep has four stages with different brain wave patterns. Sleep is regulated by circadian rhythms and homeostasis. The brainstem contains sleep centers like the raphe nucleus and locus ceruleus that induce REM and NREM sleep respectively. Common sleep disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, nightmares, night terrors and somnambulism. Movement disorders during sleep include restless legs syndrome and leg cramps.
The document discusses intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), including its definition, epidemiology, etiology, pathophysiology, classification, diagnosis, management, and complications. IUGR, also known as fetal growth restriction, is diagnosed when a fetus is estimated to weigh less than the 10th percentile for gestational age based on ultrasound. Proper diagnosis involves serial fundal height measurements and ultrasound assessment of fetal size, amniotic fluid levels, and umbilical and cerebral doppler studies. Management may include monitoring, delivery timing based on test results, and treatment of any underlying maternal conditions. Complications of IUGR include stillbirth, neonatal difficulties, and long-term developmental issues.
THE SICKLE CELL DISEASE IN PREGNANCY.pptxDr Issah J.K
This presentation talks about Haematological disorder in pregnancy specifically sickle cell disease in pregnancy. It's epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, management and it's prognosis
Electrolyte_imbalance and fluid disorderDr Issah J.K
1. Electrolyte disturbances involve abnormalities in sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium levels. They are common in the emergency department and can have varying degrees of severity and symptoms.
2. Evaluation involves assessing the history for causes of the electrolyte abnormality and any associated symptoms. Physical exam may reveal signs related to the specific electrolyte disturbance. Key lab tests include electrolyte levels, ECG, and other tests as indicated.
3. Management focuses on treating any life-threatening complications, identifying and addressing the underlying cause, correcting associated electrolyte imbalances, and carefully restoring normal electrolyte levels to avoid complications of overly rapid correction. The approach depends on the specific electrolyte, severity, chronicity and rate
The presentation covers known Variants Covid -19 of medical importance and the second wave Covid - 19 that hit in India. The factors that led to the abrupt raised number of cases in a short time.
This presentation covers on complete blood cells count and it's differentials. Starting with RBC count, WBC count and Platelets interpretation as a whole.
Hemodialysis: Chapter 8, Complications During Hemodialysis, Part 2 - Dr.GawadNephroTube - Dr.Gawad
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/FHV_jNJUt3Y
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/D5kYfTMFA8E
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Descoperă Bucuria Vieții Sănătoase cu Jurnalul Fericirii Life Care - Iulie 2024!
Gata să te bucuri de o vară vibrantă și plină de energie? Life Care îți vine în ajutor cu Jurnalul Fericirii din Iulie 2024, un ghid complet pentru o viață armonioasă și echilibrată.
Pe parcursul a cateva de pagini pline de informații utile și inspirație, vei descoperi:
Sfaturi practice pentru o alimentație sănătoasă:
Rețete delicioase și ușor de preparat: Bucură-te de preparate gustoase și nutritive, perfecte pentru zilele călduroase de vară.
Recomandări pentru o alimentație echilibrată: Asigură-ți aportul necesar de nutrienți esențiali pentru un organism sănătos și plin de vitalitate.
Sfaturi pentru alegeri alimentare inteligente: Învață cum să faci cumpărături sănătoase și să eviți tentațiile nesănătoase.
Trucuri pentru un stil de viață activ:
Rutine de exerciții fizice adaptate nevoilor tale: Găsește antrenamente potrivite pentru a te menține în formă și energic pe tot parcursul verii.
Idei de activități în aer liber: Descoperă modalități distractive de a te bucura de vremea frumoasă și de a petrece timp de calitate cu cei dragi.
Sfaturi pentru un somn odihnitor: Asigură-ți un somn profund și reparator pentru a te trezi revigorat și pregătit pentru o nouă zi.
Sfaturi pentru o stare de bine mentală:
Tehnici de relaxare și gestionare a stresului: Învață cum să te relaxezi și să faci față provocărilor zilnice cu mai multă ușurință.
Sfaturi pentru cultivarea optimismului și a gândirii pozitive: Descoperă cum să abordezi viața cu o perspectivă optimistă și să atragi mai multă bucurie în ea.
Recomandări pentru a te conecta cu natura: Bucură-te de beneficiile naturii asupra stării tale mentale și emoționale.
Bonus:
Oferte exclusive la produsele Life Care: Beneficiază de reduceri și promoții speciale la o gamă largă de produse pentru o viață sănătoasă.
Concursuri și premii: Participă la concursuri distractive și câștigă premii valoroase.
Jurnalul Fericirii Life Care - Iulie 2024 este mai mult decât o simplă revistă. Este un ghid complet și personalizat pentru a te ajuta să obții o viață mai sănătoasă, mai fericită și mai plină de satisfacții.
Nu rata această șansă de a te bucura de vară la maximum! Descoperă Jurnalul Fericirii Life Care - Iulie 2024 astăzi!
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Mainstreaming #CleanLanguage in healthcare.pptxJudy Rees
In healthcare, every day, millions of conversations fail. They fail to cover what’s really important, fail to resolve key issues, miss the point and lead to misunderstandings and disagreements.
Clean Language is one approach that can improve things. It’s a set of precise questions – and a way of asking them – which help us all get clear on what matters, what we’d like to have happen, and what’s needed.
Around 1000 people working in healthcare have trained in Clean Language skills over the past 20+ years. People are using what they’ve learnt, in their own spheres, and share anecdotes of significant successes. But the various local initiatives have not scaled, nor connected with each other, and learning has not been widely shared.
This project, which emerged from work done by the NHS England South-West End-Of-Life Network, with help from the Q Community and especially Hesham Abdalla, aims to fix that.
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Tod...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
Ventilation Perfusion Ratio, Physiological dead space and physiological shuntMedicoseAcademics
In this insightful lecture, Dr. Faiza, an esteemed Assistant Professor of Physiology, delves into the essential concept of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙), which is fundamental to understanding pulmonary physiology. Dr. Faiza brings a wealth of knowledge and experience to the table, with qualifications including MBBS, FCPS in Physiology, and multiple postgraduate degrees in public health and healthcare education.
The lecture begins by laying the groundwork with basic concepts, explaining the definitions of ventilation (V˙) and perfusion (Q˙), and highlighting the significance of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙). Dr. Faiza explains the normal value of this ratio and its critical role in ensuring efficient gas exchange in the lungs.
Next, the discussion moves to the impact of different V˙/Q˙ ratios on alveolar gas concentrations. Participants will learn how a normal, zero, or infinite V˙/Q˙ ratio affects the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. Dr. Faiza provides a detailed comparison of alveolar gas concentrations in these varying scenarios, offering a clear understanding of the physiological changes that occur.
The lecture also covers the concepts of physiological shunt and dead space. Dr. Faiza defines physiological shunt and explains its causes and effects on gas exchange, distinguishing it from anatomical dead space. She also discusses physiological dead space in detail, including how it is calculated using the Bohr equation. The components and significance of the Bohr equation are thoroughly explained, and practical examples of its application are provided.
Further, the lecture examines the variations in V˙/Q˙ ratios in different regions of the lung and under different conditions, such as lying versus supine and resting versus exercise. Dr. Faiza analyzes how these variations affect pulmonary function and discusses the abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios seen in chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD) and their clinical implications.
Finally, Dr. Faiza explores the clinical implications of abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios. She identifies clinical conditions associated with these abnormalities, such as COPD and emphysema, and discusses the physiological and clinical consequences on respiratory function. The lecture emphasizes the importance of understanding these concepts for medical professionals and students, highlighting their relevance in diagnosing and managing respiratory conditions.
This comprehensive lecture provides valuable insights for medical students, healthcare professionals, and anyone interested in respiratory physiology. Participants will gain a deep understanding of how ventilation and perfusion work together to optimize gas exchange in the lungs and how deviations from the norm can lead to significant clinical issues.
A comparative study on uroculturome antimicrobial susceptibility in apparentl...Bhoj Raj Singh
The uroculturome indicates the profile of culturable microbes inhabiting the urinary tract, and it is often required to do a urine culture to find an effective antimicrobial to treat UTIs. This study targeted to understand the profile of culturable pathogens in the urine of apparently healthy (128) and humans with clinical UTIs (161). In urine samples from UTI cases, microbial counts were 1.2×104 ± 6.02×103 colony-forming units (cfu)/ mL, while in urine samples from apparently healthy humans, the average count was 3.33± 1.34×103 cfu/ mL. In eight samples (six from UTI cases and two from apparently healthy people) of urine, Candida (C. albicans 3, C. catenulata 1, C. krusei 1, C. tropicalis 1, C. parapsiplosis 1, C. gulliermondii 1) and Rhizopus species (1) were detected. Candida krusei was detected only in a single urine sample from a healthy person and C. albicans was detected both in urine of healthy and clinical UTI cases. Fungal strains were always detected with one or more types of bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria were more commonly (OR, 1.98; CI99, 1.01-3.87) detected in urine samples of apparently healthy humans, and Gram -ve bacteria (OR, 2.74; CI99, 1.44-5.23) in urines of UTI cases. From urine samples of 161 UTI cases, a total of 90 different types of microbes were detected and, 73 samples had only a single type of bacteria. In contrast, 49, 29, 3, 4, 1, and 2 samples had 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 types of bacteria, respectively. The most common bacteria detected in urine of UTI cases was Escherichia coli detected in 52 samples, in 20 cases as the single type of bacteria, other 34 types of bacteria were detected in pure form in 53 cases. From 128 urine samples of apparently healthy people, 88 types of microbes were detected either singly or in association with others, from 64 urine samples only a single type of bacteria was detected while 34, 13, 3, 11, 2 and 1 samples yielded 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and seven types of microbes, respectively. In the urine of apparently healthy humans too, E. coli was the most common bacteria, detected in pure culture from 10 samples followed by Staphylococcus haemolyticus (9), S. intermedius (5), and S. aureus (5), and similar types of bacteria also dominated in cases of mixed occurrence, E. coli was detected in 26, S. aureus in 22 and S. haemolyticus in 19 urine samples, respectively. Gram +ve bacteria isolated from urine samples' irrespective of health status were more often (p, <0.01) resistant than Gram -ve bacteria to ajowan oil, holy basil oil, cinnamaldehyde, and cinnamon oil, but more susceptible to sandalwood oil (p, <0.01). However, for antibiotics, Gram +ve were more often susceptible than Gram -ve bacteria to cephalosporins, doxycycline, and nitrofurantoin. The study concludes that to understand the role of good and bad bacteria in the urinary tract microbiome more targeted studies are needed to discern the isolates at the pathotype level.
JMML is a rare cancer of blood that affects young children. There is a sustained abnormal and excessive production of myeloid progenitors and monocytes.
Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that influence these rates.
Importance in Pharmaceuticals: Understanding chemical kinetics is essential for predicting the shelf life of drugs, optimizing storage conditions, and ensuring consistent drug performance.
Rate of Reaction: The speed at which reactants are converted to products.
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates:
Concentration of Reactants: Higher concentrations generally increase the rate of reaction.
Temperature: Increasing temperature typically increases reaction rates.
Catalysts: Substances that increase the reaction rate without being consumed in the process.
Physical State of Reactants: The surface area and physical state (solid, liquid, gas) of reactants can affect the reaction rate.
2. Sleep is a state of unconsciousness in which the brain is relatively
more responsive to internal than external stimuli.
The predictable cycling of sleep and the reversal of relative external
unresponsiveness are features that assist in distinguishing sleep
from other states of unconsciousness.
The brain gradually becomes less responsive to visual, auditory,
somatosensory, and other environmental stimuli during the
transition from wake to sleep.
Homeostatic factors (factor S) and circadian factors (factor C)
interact to determine the timing and quality of sleep.
3. The sleep-wake cycle itself is a circadian rhythm, i.e., an endogenous
cyclic change occurs in an organism with a periodicity of roughly 24
hours.
The cycle is regulated by the superchiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
The REM cycle, which is approximately 90 minutes, is an example of
an ultradian rhythm, occurring with a periodicity of less than 24
hours.
This biological clock determines the release of neurochemicals that
either initiate sleep or chase it away.
4. “SANDman”
1. Serotonin: helps initiate sleep
2. Acetylcholine (ACh): higher during REM sleep (associated with
erections in men)
3. Norepinephrine (NE): lower during REM sleep
a. Ratio of ACh and NE is the biochemical trigger for REM sleep.
b. NE pathway begins in the pons, which regulates REM sleep.
4. Dopamine: produces arousal and wakefulness. Rises with waking
5. Melatonin is not related to sleeping, but rather to feelings of
sleepiness: Release is inhibited by daylight, and, at nighttime, levels rise
dramatically
7. Divided into 4 stages on the basis of EEG criteria
Alternates with REM sleep throughout the sleep period and is
characterized by:
i. Slowing of the EEG rhythms
ii. Higher muscle tone
iii. Absence of eye movements
iv. Absence of “Thought - like” mental activity
Is an idling brain in a movable body.
8. Slow-wave sleep occurs for longer stretch in babies and young
children, also with increase in growth hormones, prolactin and
serotonin
Most of NREM Stages 3 and 4 (the deepest sleep levels) occur during
the first half of the night.
The average adult spends most sleep time in Stage 2 and least in
Stage 1.
Stage 3 is also the stage when sleepwalking and sleep talking are
most likely to occur.
Duration of delta sleep (deep sleep) is 65% inherited.
9. Characterized by:
i. An aroused EEG pattern
ii. Sexual arousal
iii. Saccadic eye movements
iv. Elaborate visual imagery (dreaming)
v. Associated with pons
Is an awake brain in a paralyzed body.
10. Most REM sleep occurs during the last half of the night. REM sleep
gets progressively longer as the night goes on.
Adults most commonly wake out of REM or Stage 2 sleep.
REM sleep appears to increase somewhat in both children and
adults after learning, especially the learning of complex material, in
the previous waking period.
REM sleep is essential to get the most out of studying. It is
when most long-term memories are consolidated by the
hippocampus.
A newborn baby may spend about 80% of his/her total sleep time in
REM-stage compared to adults in about 20 – 25% in REM sleep.
13. Sleep deprivation, also known as insufficient sleep or sleeplessness, is
the condition of not having enough sleep. It can be either chronic or
acute and may vary widely in severity.
A chronic sleep-deprivation state adversely affects the brain and
cognitive function.
The cerebral cortex shows the greatest effects of sleep deprivation but
has the capacity to cope with one night’s sleep loss.
Only about one-third of lost sleep is made up.
80% of lost Stage 4 is recovered.
About one-half of the missing REM is recovered.
14. If getting 5 hours of sleep or less per night, person functions at level
of someone legally drunk!
The longer the prior period of wakefulness, the more Stage 4 sleep
increases during the first part of the night and the more REM
declines.
Short sleepers lose the latter part of REM sleep.
REM deprivation
a. Does not impede the performance of simple tasks
b. Interferes with the performance of more complex tasks
c. Makes it more difficult to learn complex tasks
d. Decreases attention to details but not the capacity to deal with
crisis situations
15. A sleep disorder, or Somnipathy, is a medical disorder of the sleep
patterns of a person or conditions that disturb normal sleep patterns.
Most people occasionally experience sleeping problems due to stress,
hectic schedules, and other outside influences. However, when these
issues begin to occur on a regular basis and interfere with daily life,
they may indicate a sleeping disorder.
While some sleep disorders have a clearly identifiable cause, others
emerge from a combination of factors. Often, sleep disorders are the
unwelcome side effect of some other mental or physical medical
condition.
When sleep disorders aren’t caused by another condition, treatment
normally involves a combination of medical treatments and lifestyle
changes
16. There are many conditions, diseases, and disorders that can cause
sleep disturbances. In many cases, sleep disorders develop as a
result of an underlying health problem
Sleep disorder can be due to
Other conditions, such as heart disease, lung disease, nerve
disorders, and pain
Mental illnesses, including depression and anxiety
Medicines/Drugs
Genetics
Allergies and Respiratory Problems
Nocturia
17. Sometimes the cause is unknown.
There are also some factors that can contribute to sleep problems,
including
Caffeine and alcohol
An irregular schedule, such as working the night shift
Aging. As people age, they often get less sleep or spend less time
in the deep, restful stage of sleep. They are also more easily
awakened
18. There are over 90 different types of sleep disorders. The most
common include:
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea
Circadian Rhythm Disorders
Restless Leg Syndrome
19. Insomnia refers to the inability to fall asleep or to remain asleep.
It’s the most common sleep disorder, and it comes in two varieties:
a) Primary insomnia: This is not caused by an underlying medical
condition.eg, stress and anxiety, hormones, or digestive problems
b) Secondary insomnia: This type stems from another medical problem.
Insomnia is usually classified as one of three types:
chronic, which is when insomnia happens on a regular basis for at
least one month
intermittent, which is when insomnia occurs periodically
transient, which is when insomnia lasts for just a few nights at a
time
20. Problems falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping all the way
through the night
Feeling sleepy or fatigued during the day
Feeling cranky or moody
Problems with concentration or memory
21. Establishing and sticking to a consistent sleep schedule
Taking prescription sleep aid
Avoiding alcohol or caffeine near bedtime
Treating mental or physical health problems that may be
contributing to insomnia
Regular exercise
Behavioral therapies designed to help overcome specific sleep-
related struggles—like problems falling asleep
22. Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder in which the brain doesn’t
properly manage the body’s sleep-wake states. There are two types:
Type 1 narcolepsy: This term is used to describe patients who either
have low levels of a brain chemical called hypocretin, which helps
regulate the body’s sleep-wake cycles, or those who experience some
specific narcolepsy symptoms.
Type 2 narcolepsy: Patients with this condition do not have low levels
of hypocretin, but experience other narcolepsy symptoms. e.g. sleep
paralysis in a lying supine person without a pillow.
Narcolepsy is a disorder of REM sleep: onset of REM within 10
minutes.
23. 1. Sleep attacks and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS)
2. Cataplexy (pathognomonic sign)- Sudden loss of muscle tone,
which leads to weakness or loss of muscle control. This often
occurs when a person is exposed to intense emotions such as
laughter and anger.
3. Hypnagogic hallucinations - Vivid and terrifying nightmares
(hypnopompic can occur, but not pathognomonic)
i. Hypnagogic: while falling asleep
ii. Hypnopompic: while waking up
4. Sleep paralysis which is an inability to move or speak even when
partly awake.
24. I. Prescription medications
a) Modafinil or psychostimulants for excessive daytime
sleepiness
Inhibits DA re-uptake
Activates glutamate; inhibits GABA
b) Antidepressants (TCA, SNRI)
c) Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) to reduce daytime
sleepiness and cataplexy
II. Establishing and sticking to a consistent sleep schedule
III. Avoiding alcohol or caffeine near bedtime
IV. Short daytime naps to prevent unexpected bouts of sleep
25. Sleep apnea is a condition in which a person repeatedly stops breathing
during the night, which harms the depth and quality of his or her sleep.
In some cases, these breathing stoppages can occur hundreds of times
each night. There are 3 types:
Obstructive sleep apnea: This is caused by the partial or total blockage of
breathing airways during sleep. It’s the more common type of sleep
apnea. Occurs in Middle-aged, Overweight and Rasping snoring
Central (diaphragmatic) sleep apnea: The type of sleep apnea in which
the muscles that control a person’s breathing don’t work properly during
sleep. This is often a result of "signaling problems" in a person’s brain, or
as a result of other conditions, like heart failure and stroke. Occurs in
Elderly, Overweight and Cheyne-Stokes (60-second hyperventilation,
followed by apnea)
Mixed sleep apnea
26. Heavy snoring with frequent pauses
Kicking, punching of sleeping partner
Obesity is often part of the clinical picture, but not always
Short sleep duration, frequent waking, insomnia, decreased Stage 1,
decreased delta and REM
EDS and insomnia often reported
High risk of sudden death during sleep, development of severe
nocturnal hypoxemia, pulmonary and systemic hypertension (with
elevated diastolic pressure)
Nocturnal cardiac arrhythmias (potentially life-threatening)
Males outnumber females by 8 to 1
27. Weight loss (if applicable)
Behavioral conditioning to change sleep position (Side-sleeping)
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). which is a mask-like
device that keeps airways open by gently forcing air into the
sleeper’s nose or mouth
For severe obstructive and mixed apnea: Surgery to repair or
remove structural causes of airway blockages e.g. tonsillectomy or
tracheostomy
Using breathing strips or nasal sprays to open up airways
28. This group of related sleep issues is caused by disruptions to a
person’s internal circadian rhythm, or sleep clock. For people with a
circadian rhythm disorder, there’s a mismatch between their internal
clocks and their desired sleep-wake schedule, and this leads to
problems sleeping.
Circadian rhythm disorders come in a variety of subtypes. These
include:
Shift work disorder: This occurs among people who work irregular
schedules or night shifts, and are often trying to stay awake or fall
asleep at times that don’t align with their body’s internal clocks.
29. Delayed sleep phase disorder: This could be thought of as "night
owlism." It’s most common among teens and young adults, and it’s
defined as an inability to fall asleep until very late at night—2 or 3
a.m.—and a desire to sleep until midday or later. While this may not
seem like a problem for some, it can be a considerable challenge if a
person’s work or school obligations require them to go to bed and get
up at earlier hours.
Advanced sleep phase disorders: This is basically the opposite of
delayed sleep phase disorder. This type, which is most common
among the elderly, typically involves going to bed at a very early
hour—sometime between 6 and 9 p.m.—and rising in the middle of
the night.
30. Problems falling asleep, staying asleep, or sleeping all the way
through the night. Other reasons can be due to addicted video
games, movies etc.
Feeling sleepy or fatigued during the day
Feeling cranky or moody
Problems with concentration or memory
31. Establishing and sticking to a consistent sleep schedule
Improving bedtime routines or “sleep habits”
Taking prescription sleep aid
Avoiding alcohol or caffeine near bedtime
Regular exercise
Behavioral therapies
32. Restless leg syndrome (RLS) is just what it sounds like: a strong
inclination or urge to move your legs while they’re at rest. RLS
usually happens once a person lies down in bed or after they’ve been
sitting for long periods.
For some, RLS can be so severe that it becomes difficult to fall or
stay asleep. This can lead to excessive daytime drowsiness and
insomnia.
33. Tingling, burning, numbness, pain or other unpleasant sensations in
the legs
Experiencing these symptoms in bed or after long stretches of
inactivity
34. Iron supplements to treat a deficiency
Prescription medications
Warm baths
Massages