This document provides an overview of one-way ANOVA, including its assumptions, steps, and an example. One-way ANOVA tests whether the means of three or more independent groups are significantly different. It compares the variance between sample means to the variance within samples using an F-statistic. If the F-statistic exceeds a critical value, then at least one group mean is significantly different from the others. Post-hoc tests may then be used to determine specifically which group means differ. The example calculates statistics to compare the analgesic effects of three drugs and finds no significant difference between the group means.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) everything you need to knowStat Analytica
Most of the students may struggle with the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Here in this presentation you can clear all your doubts in analysis of variance with suitable examples.
The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a non-parametric statistical test used to compare two related samples or repeated measurements on a single sample to assess if their population mean ranks differ. It can be used as an alternative to the paired t-test when the population cannot be assumed to be normally distributed. The test involves ranking the differences between paired observations, ignoring the signs of the differences, and comparing the sum of the ranks of the positive or negative differences to critical values to determine if there are statistically significant differences between the samples. A limitation is that observations with a difference of zero are discarded, which can be a concern if samples come from a discrete distribution.
This document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. It discusses one-way ANOVA, which evaluates differences between three or more population means. Key aspects covered include partitioning total variation into between- and within-group components, assumptions of normality and equal variances, and using the F-test to test for differences. Randomized block ANOVA and two-factor ANOVA are also introduced as extensions to control for additional variables. Post-hoc tests like Tukey and Fisher's LSD are described for determining specific mean differences.
The document discusses analysis of variance (ANOVA), a statistical technique developed by R.A. Fisher in 1920 to analyze the differences between group means and their associated procedures. It can be used when there are two or more samples to study the significance of differences between their mean values. ANOVA works by decomposing the overall variability into different sources and comparing the relative sizes of different variances. It is useful for research in fields like agriculture, biology, pharmacy, and more.
The document discusses parametric and non-parametric tests. It provides examples of commonly used non-parametric tests including the Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Wilcoxon signed-rank test. For each test, it gives the steps to perform the test and interpret the results. Non-parametric tests make fewer assumptions than parametric tests and can be used when the data is ordinal or does not meet the assumptions of parametric tests. They provide a distribution-free alternative for analyzing data.
This document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. It discusses one-way and two-way ANOVA, including their assumptions, calculations, and applications. For example, it explains how to set up a two-way ANOVA table and calculate values like sums of squares, degrees of freedom, mean squares, and F values. It also gives an example of using one-way ANOVA to analyze differences in crop yields between four plots of land.
Today’s overwhelming number of techniques applicable to data analysis makes it extremely difficult to define the most beneficial approach while considering all the significant variables.
The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models and their associated estimation procedures (such as the "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the differences among means. ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher. ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether two or more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test beyond two means. In other words, the ANOVA is used to test the difference between two or more means.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is an analysis tool used in statistics that splits an observed aggregate variability found inside a data set into two parts: systematic factors and random factors. The systematic factors have a statistical influence on the given data set, while the random factors do not. Analysts use the ANOVA test to determine the influence that independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression study.
Sir Ronald Fisher pioneered the development of ANOVA for analyzing results of agricultural experiments.1 Today, ANOVA is included in almost every statistical package, which makes it accessible to investigators in all experimental sciences. It is easy to input a data set and run a simple ANOVA, but it is challenging to choose the appropriate ANOVA for different experimental designs, to examine whether data adhere to the modeling assumptions, and to interpret the results correctly. The purpose of this report, together with the next 2 articles in the Statistical Primer for Cardiovascular Research series, is to enhance understanding of ANVOA and to promote its successful use in experimental cardiovascular research. My colleagues and I attempt to accomplish those goals through examples and explanation, while keeping within reason the burden of notation, technical jargon, and mathematical equations.
The document provides an overview of the student's t-test, a statistical hypothesis test used to determine if two sets of data are significantly different from each other. It discusses the different types of t-tests, their main uses which include comparing sample means to hypothesized values or between two groups, assumptions of the t-test, and how it relates to the z-test and normal distribution. Examples of one sample, paired, and independent sample t-tests are also provided.
This document provides an overview of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), including definitions, assumptions, calculations, examples, and limitations. ANOVA allows researchers to determine if variability between groups is greater than expected by chance. The document explains how to calculate sums of squares, F-ratios, and p-values to test the null hypothesis that means are equal across groups.
The document discusses experimental research designs. It describes the key components of experimental designs, including methodology, categories of designs, controlling extraneous variables through random assignment and other techniques, and examples of designs like the pre-test post-test control group design. The pre-test post-test control group design involves randomly assigning subjects to an experimental and control group, pre-testing both groups, exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, and then post-testing both groups to assess the impact of the independent variable by comparing the changes in the experimental and control groups. Experimental designs aim to establish causal relationships by manipulating an independent variable while controlling other factors.
This presentation contains information about Mann Whitney U test, what is it, when to use it and how to use it. I have also put an example so that it may help you to easily understand it.
This document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA). It begins by defining parametric tests and discussing the assumptions of ANOVA. The key ideas of ANOVA are introduced, including comparing the variance between groups to the variance within groups. Calculations for one-way ANOVA are demonstrated, including sums of squares, mean squares, and the F-statistic. Examples are provided to illustrate one-way ANOVA calculations and interpretations. Violations of assumptions and extensions to two-way ANOVA are also discussed.
The document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA). It defines ANOVA and discusses its key concepts, including how it was developed by Ronald Fisher. It also covers one-way and two-way ANOVA, describing their techniques and providing examples. The uses, advantages and limitations of ANOVA are outlined.
This document provides information about the Kruskal-Wallis H test, a non-parametric method for testing whether samples originate from the same distribution. It describes how the Kruskal-Wallis test is a generalization of the Mann-Whitney U test that allows comparison of more than two independent groups. The test works by ranking all data from lowest to highest and then summing the ranks for each group to calculate the test statistic H, which is compared to a chi-squared distribution to determine whether to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis that all population medians are equal.
Through this ppt you could learn what is Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test. This will teach you the condition and criteria where it can be run and the way to use the test.
This document explains the key differences between observational and experimental studies. Observational studies involve observing phenomena as they occur naturally, while experimental studies involve manipulating variables and determining their effects. It defines related concepts like independent and dependent variables, treatment and control groups. It notes advantages of experimental studies like controlling subject selection and variable manipulation, and disadvantages like artificial settings and potential confounding variables.
This document provides an overview of non-parametric statistical tests. It discusses tests such as the chi-square test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Mann-Whitney test, Friedman test, and median test. These tests can be used with ordinal or nominal data when the assumptions of parametric tests are not met. The document explains the appropriate uses and procedures for each non-parametric test.
This document outlines the objectives and contents of a presentation on experimental designs. It aims to review experimental designs, study their importance, understand related terminology, and explain different types of designs. The presentation covers the introduction to and importance of experimental designs. It defines basic terminology and discusses types of designs like before-after, randomized block, Latin square, and factorial designs. The conclusion reiterates that experiments allow establishing cause-and-effect relationships but validity issues can arise, so designs aim to control confounding factors.
This document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques, including one-way and two-way ANOVA. It defines ANOVA as a statistical tool used to test differences between two or more means by analyzing variance. One-way ANOVA tests the effect of one factor on the mean and splits total variation into between-groups and within-groups components. Two-way ANOVA controls for another variable as a blocking factor to reduce error variance and splits total variation into between treatments, between blocks, and residual components. The document reviews key ANOVA terms, assumptions, calculations including sum of squares, F-ratio and p-value, and provides examples of one-way and two-way ANOVA.
a full lecture presentation on ANOVA .
areas covered include;
a. definition and purpose of anova
b. one-way anova
c. factorial anova
d. mutiple anova
e MANOVA
f. POST-HOC TESTS - types
f. easy step by step process of calculating post hoc test.
The document discusses different types of t-tests and one-way ANOVA for comparing means of continuous outcome data. It describes one sample t-test, paired t-test, two independent samples t-test, and one-way ANOVA. For one-way ANOVA, it outlines the assumptions, definitions, notations, partitioning of total sum of squares, and provides examples to illustrate these statistical tests for comparing several means.
1) ANOVA is used to compare the means of more than two populations and determine if observed differences are due to chance or actual differences in the population means.
2) The document provides an example of using a one-way single factor ANOVA to analyze the effects of different teaching formats on student exam scores.
3) The ANOVA compares the between-treatment variability to the within-treatment variability using an F-test. If the between-treatment variability is significantly larger, it suggests the population means differ. In this example, the F-test showed no significant difference between the teaching formats.
This document provides an overview of parametric and nonparametric statistical methods. It defines key concepts like standard error, degrees of freedom, critical values, and one-tailed versus two-tailed hypotheses. Common parametric tests discussed include t-tests, ANOVA, ANCOVA, and MANOVA. Nonparametric tests covered are chi-square, Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, and Friedman. The document explains when to use parametric versus nonparametric methods and how measures like effect size can quantify the strength of relationships found.
This document provides an overview of analysis of variance (ANOVA), including:
- ANOVA is used to compare means of three or more populations using an F-test. It assumes normal distributions, independence, and equal variances.
- Between-group and within-group variances are calculated to determine the F-value. If F exceeds the critical value, the null hypothesis of equal means is rejected.
- Two-way ANOVA extends the technique to analyze two independent variables and their interaction effects on a dependent variable. Graphs can show interactions like disordinal, ordinal, or no interaction.
The document discusses various parametric statistical tests including t-tests, ANOVA, ANCOVA, and MANOVA. It provides definitions and assumptions for parametric tests and explains how they can be used to analyze quantitative data that follows a normal distribution. Specific parametric tests covered in detail include the independent samples t-test, paired t-test, one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, and ANCOVA. Examples are provided to illustrate how each test is conducted and how results are interpreted.
The document provides information on statistical techniques for comparing means between groups, including t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and their assumptions and applications. T-tests are used to compare two groups, while ANOVA allows comparison of three or more groups and controls for increased Type I error rates. Steps for conducting t-tests, ANOVA, and post-hoc tests using SPSS are outlined along with examples and interpretations.
The document discusses statistical methods for comparing means between groups, including t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA). It provides information on different types of t-tests (one sample, independent samples, and paired samples t-tests), assumptions of t-tests, and how to perform t-tests in SPSS. It also covers one-way ANOVA, including its assumptions, components of variation, properties of the F-test, and how to run a one-way ANOVA in SPSS. Examples are provided for each statistical test.
This document discusses parametric and nonparametric statistical tests. Parametric tests like the t-test and ANOVA assume a normal distribution of data and compare population means. Nonparametric tests do not assume a normal distribution and can be used when sample sizes are small or distributions are unknown. Specific parametric tests covered include the t-test for comparing two groups, one-way ANOVA for comparing three or more groups on one factor, and two-way ANOVA for examining two factors. Examples of how and when to use these various tests are provided.
The document provides an overview of different statistical analysis methods including independent ANOVA, repeated measures ANOVA, and MANOVA. It discusses key aspects of each method such as their appropriate uses, assumptions, and how to conduct the analyses and interpret results in SPSS. For ANOVA, it covers topics like F-ratio, significance levels, post-hoc tests, effect sizes, and examples. For MANOVA, it compares it to ANOVA and explains how MANOVA can assess differences across groups on multiple dependent variables simultaneously.
(Individuals With Disabilities Act Transformation Over the Years)DSilvaGraf83
(Individuals With Disabilities Act Transformation Over the Years)
Discussion Forum Instructions:
1. You must post at least three times each week.
2. Your initial post is due Tuesday of each week and the following two post are due before Sunday.
3. All post must be on separate days of the week.
4. Post must be at least 150 words and cite all of your references even it its the book.
Discussion Topic:
Describe how the lives of students with disabilities from culturally and/or linguistically diverse backgrounds have changed since the advent of IDEA. What do you feel are some things that can or should be implemented to better assist with students that have disabilities? Tell me about these ideas and how would you integrate them?
ANOVA
ANOVA
• Analysis of Variance
• Statistical method to analyzes variances to determine if the means from more than
two populations are the same
• compare the between-sample-variation to the within-sample-variation
• If the between-sample-variation is sufficiently large compared to the within-sample-
variation it is likely that the population means are statistically different
• Compares means (group differences) among levels of factors. No
assumptions are made regarding how the factors are related
• Residual related assumptions are the same as with simple regression
• Explanatory variables can be qualitative or quantitative but are categorized
for group investigations. These variables are often referred to as factors
with levels (category levels)
ANOVA Assumptions
• Assume populations , from which the response values for the groups
are drawn, are normally distributed
• Assumes populations have equal variances
• Can compare the ratio of smallest and largest sample standard deviations.
Between .05 and 2 are typically not considered evidence of a violation
assumption
• Assumes the response data are independent
• For large sample sizes, or for factor level sample sizes that are equal,
the ANOVA test is robust to assumption violations of normality and
unequal variances
ANOVA and Variance
Fixed or Random Factors
• A factor is fixed if its levels are chosen before the ANOVA investigation
begins
• Difference in groups are only investigated for the specific pre-selected factors
and levels
• A factor is random if its levels are choosen randomly from the
population before the ANOVA investigation begins
Randomization
• Assigning subjects to treatment groups or treatments to subjects
randomly reduces the chance of bias selecting results
ANOVA hypotheses statements
One-way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA
Hypotheses statements
Test statistic
=
𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Under the null hypothesis both the between and within group variances estimate the
variance of the random error so the ratio is assumed to be close to 1.
Null Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis
One-Way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA Excel Output
Treatme
(Individuals With Disabilities Act Transformation Over the Years)DMoseStaton39
(Individuals With Disabilities Act Transformation Over the Years)
Discussion Forum Instructions:
1. You must post at least three times each week.
2. Your initial post is due Tuesday of each week and the following two post are due before Sunday.
3. All post must be on separate days of the week.
4. Post must be at least 150 words and cite all of your references even it its the book.
Discussion Topic:
Describe how the lives of students with disabilities from culturally and/or linguistically diverse backgrounds have changed since the advent of IDEA. What do you feel are some things that can or should be implemented to better assist with students that have disabilities? Tell me about these ideas and how would you integrate them?
ANOVA
ANOVA
• Analysis of Variance
• Statistical method to analyzes variances to determine if the means from more than
two populations are the same
• compare the between-sample-variation to the within-sample-variation
• If the between-sample-variation is sufficiently large compared to the within-sample-
variation it is likely that the population means are statistically different
• Compares means (group differences) among levels of factors. No
assumptions are made regarding how the factors are related
• Residual related assumptions are the same as with simple regression
• Explanatory variables can be qualitative or quantitative but are categorized
for group investigations. These variables are often referred to as factors
with levels (category levels)
ANOVA Assumptions
• Assume populations , from which the response values for the groups
are drawn, are normally distributed
• Assumes populations have equal variances
• Can compare the ratio of smallest and largest sample standard deviations.
Between .05 and 2 are typically not considered evidence of a violation
assumption
• Assumes the response data are independent
• For large sample sizes, or for factor level sample sizes that are equal,
the ANOVA test is robust to assumption violations of normality and
unequal variances
ANOVA and Variance
Fixed or Random Factors
• A factor is fixed if its levels are chosen before the ANOVA investigation
begins
• Difference in groups are only investigated for the specific pre-selected factors
and levels
• A factor is random if its levels are choosen randomly from the
population before the ANOVA investigation begins
Randomization
• Assigning subjects to treatment groups or treatments to subjects
randomly reduces the chance of bias selecting results
ANOVA hypotheses statements
One-way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA
Hypotheses statements
Test statistic
=
𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Under the null hypothesis both the between and within group variances estimate the
variance of the random error so the ratio is assumed to be close to 1.
Null Hypothesis
Alternate Hypothesis
One-Way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA Excel Output
Treatme
This document provides an overview of common statistical tests used to analyze data, including the t-test, ANOVA, and ANCOVA. It describes the assumptions, test statistics, and SAS code for each test. The t-test is used to compare two population means or determine if two sets of data are significantly different. ANOVA examines differences among group means and can be one-way or two-way. ANCOVA combines aspects of ANOVA and regression by including categorical and continuous predictors to examine the influence of independent variables on a dependent variable while controlling for a covariate.
Parametric tests such as ANOVA allow researchers to compare means across multiple groups and determine if differences are statistically significant. ANOVA specifically compares variability between groups to variability within groups to assess if group means differ. If the ANOVA results in a p-value less than the significance level, it indicates that at least one group mean is significantly different from the others.
ANOVA and meta-analysis are statistical techniques used to analyze data from multiple groups or studies. ANOVA allows researchers to determine if variability between groups is statistically significant or due to chance. It compares the means of three or more independent groups and tests the hypothesis that their means are equal. Meta-analysis systematically combines results from independent studies on a topic to obtain an overall estimate of effect. It involves identifying relevant studies, determining their eligibility, abstracting their data, and statistically analyzing the data to summarize results. Both techniques provide a more robust analysis than examining individual studies alone.
ANOVA (analysis of variance) and mean differentiation tests are statistical methods used to compare means or medians of multiple groups. ANOVA compares three or more means to test for statistical significance and is similar to multiple t-tests but with less type I error. It requires continuous dependent variables and categorical independent variables. There are different types of ANOVA including one-way, factorial, repeated measures, and multivariate ANOVA. Key assumptions of ANOVA include normality, homogeneity of variance, and independence of observations. The F-test statistic follows an F-distribution and is used to evaluate the null hypothesis that population means are equal.
This document discusses a single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) model. It defines ANOVA and explains that it allows comparison of three or more population means. The key assumptions of ANOVA are normal distributions and equal variances across populations. The document provides an example of using a single factor ANOVA to compare final exam scores from students in different teaching formats. Total variability is partitioned into between and within treatment variability, and average variability is measured using mean square values.
- Analysis of variance (ANOVA) can be used to test if there are significant differences between the means of three or more populations. It tests the null hypothesis that all population means are equal.
- Key terms in ANOVA include response variable, factor, treatment, and level. A factor is the independent variable whose levels make up the treatments being compared.
- ANOVA partitions total variation in data into variations due to treatments and random error. If the treatment variation is large compared to error variation, the null hypothesis of equal means is rejected.
This document provides an overview of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). It defines ANOVA, explains its assumptions and steps, and provides an example to illustrate its use. Specifically:
1) ANOVA is used to compare the means of three or more groups and determine if they differ significantly. It partitions variance into between-groups and within-groups components.
2) The key assumptions are normality, homogeneity of variance, and independence of observations.
3) Steps include establishing a significance level, calculating an F-statistic to compare between-group and within-group variance, and determining whether results are statistically significant.
POTENTIAL TARGET DISEASES FOR GENE THERAPY SOURAV.pptxsouravpaul769171
Theoretically, gene therapy is the permanent solution for genetic diseases. But it has several complexities. At its current stage, it is not accessible to most people due to its huge cost. A breakthrough may come anytime and a day may come when almost every disease will have a gene therapy Gene therapy have the potential to revolutionize the practice of medicine.
Ventilation Perfusion Ratio, Physiological dead space and physiological shuntMedicoseAcademics
In this insightful lecture, Dr. Faiza, an esteemed Assistant Professor of Physiology, delves into the essential concept of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙), which is fundamental to understanding pulmonary physiology. Dr. Faiza brings a wealth of knowledge and experience to the table, with qualifications including MBBS, FCPS in Physiology, and multiple postgraduate degrees in public health and healthcare education.
The lecture begins by laying the groundwork with basic concepts, explaining the definitions of ventilation (V˙) and perfusion (Q˙), and highlighting the significance of the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V˙/Q˙). Dr. Faiza explains the normal value of this ratio and its critical role in ensuring efficient gas exchange in the lungs.
Next, the discussion moves to the impact of different V˙/Q˙ ratios on alveolar gas concentrations. Participants will learn how a normal, zero, or infinite V˙/Q˙ ratio affects the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. Dr. Faiza provides a detailed comparison of alveolar gas concentrations in these varying scenarios, offering a clear understanding of the physiological changes that occur.
The lecture also covers the concepts of physiological shunt and dead space. Dr. Faiza defines physiological shunt and explains its causes and effects on gas exchange, distinguishing it from anatomical dead space. She also discusses physiological dead space in detail, including how it is calculated using the Bohr equation. The components and significance of the Bohr equation are thoroughly explained, and practical examples of its application are provided.
Further, the lecture examines the variations in V˙/Q˙ ratios in different regions of the lung and under different conditions, such as lying versus supine and resting versus exercise. Dr. Faiza analyzes how these variations affect pulmonary function and discusses the abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios seen in chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD) and their clinical implications.
Finally, Dr. Faiza explores the clinical implications of abnormal V˙/Q˙ ratios. She identifies clinical conditions associated with these abnormalities, such as COPD and emphysema, and discusses the physiological and clinical consequences on respiratory function. The lecture emphasizes the importance of understanding these concepts for medical professionals and students, highlighting their relevance in diagnosing and managing respiratory conditions.
This comprehensive lecture provides valuable insights for medical students, healthcare professionals, and anyone interested in respiratory physiology. Participants will gain a deep understanding of how ventilation and perfusion work together to optimize gas exchange in the lungs and how deviations from the norm can lead to significant clinical issues.
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Tod...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
TEST BANK For Katzung's Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 16th Edition By {Todd W. Vanderah, 2024,} Verified Chapter
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGN- RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALRishank Shahi
Randomized controlled clinical trial is a prospective experimental study.
It essentially involves comparing the outcomes in two groups of patients treated with a test treatment and a control treatment, both groups are followed over the same period of time. Prepare a plan of study or protocol
a. Define clear objectives
b. State the inclusion and exclusion criteria of case
c. Determine the sample size, place and period of study
d. Design of trial (single blind, double blind and triple blind method)
2. Define study population: Most often the patients are chosen from hospital or from the community. For example, for a study for comparison of home and sanatorium treatment, open cases of tuberculosis may be chosen.
3. Selection of participants by defined criteria as per plan:
Selection of participants should be done with precision and should be precisely stated in writing so that it can be replicated by others. For example, out of open cases of tuberculosis those who fulfill criteria for inclusion may be selected (age groups, severity of disease and treatment taken or not, etc.)
Randomization ensures that participants have an equal chance to be assigned to one of two or more groups:
One group gets the most widely accepted treatment (standard treatment/ gold standard)
The other gets the new treatment being tested, which researchers hope and have reason to believe will be better than the standard treatment
Subject variation: First, there may be bias on the part of the participants, who may subjectively feel better or report improvement if they knew they were receiving a new form of treatment.
Observer bias: The investigator measuring the outcome of a therapeutic trial may be influenced if he knows beforehand the particular procedure or therapy to which the patient has been subjected.
Evaluation bias: There may be bias in evaluation - that is, the investigator(Analyzer) may subconsciously give a favorable report of the outcome of the trial.
Co-intervention:
participants use other therapy or change behavior
Study staff, medical providers, family or friends treat participants differently.
Biased outcome ascertainment:
participants may report symptoms or outcomes differently or physicians
Investigators may elicit symptoms or outcomes differently
A technique used to prevent selection bias by concealing the allocation sequence from those assigning participants to intervention groups, until the moment of assignment.
Allocation concealment prevents researchers from influencing which participants are assigned to a given intervention group.
All clinical trials must be approved by Institutional Ethics Committee before initiation
It is mandatory to register clinical trials with Clinical Trials Registry of India
Informed consent from all study participants is mandatory.
A preclinical trial is a stage of research that begins before clinical trials, and during which important feasibility and drug safety data are collected.
Following points high.
Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that influence these rates.
Importance in Pharmaceuticals: Understanding chemical kinetics is essential for predicting the shelf life of drugs, optimizing storage conditions, and ensuring consistent drug performance.
Rate of Reaction: The speed at which reactants are converted to products.
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates:
Concentration of Reactants: Higher concentrations generally increase the rate of reaction.
Temperature: Increasing temperature typically increases reaction rates.
Catalysts: Substances that increase the reaction rate without being consumed in the process.
Physical State of Reactants: The surface area and physical state (solid, liquid, gas) of reactants can affect the reaction rate.
Coronary Circulation and Ischemic Heart Disease_AntiCopy.pdfMedicoseAcademics
In this lecture, we delve into the intricate anatomy and physiology of the coronary blood supply, a crucial aspect of cardiac function. We begin by examining the physiological anatomy of the coronary arteries, which lie on the heart's surface and penetrate the cardiac muscle mass to supply essential nutrients. Notably, only the innermost layer of the endocardial surface receives direct nourishment from the blood within the cardiac chambers.
We then explore the specifics of coronary circulation, including the dynamics of blood flow at rest and during strenuous activity. The impact of cardiac muscle compression on coronary blood flow, particularly during systole and diastole, is discussed, highlighting why this phenomenon is more pronounced in the left ventricle than the right.
Regulation of coronary circulation is a complex process influenced by autonomic and local metabolic factors. We discuss the roles of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, emphasizing the dominance of local metabolic factors such as hypoxia and adenosine in coronary vasodilation. Concepts like autoregulation, active hyperemia, and reactive hyperemia are explained to illustrate how the heart adjusts blood flow to meet varying oxygen demands.
Ischemic heart disease is a major focus, with an exploration of acute coronary artery occlusion, myocardial infarction, and subsequent physiological changes. The lecture covers the progression from acute occlusion to infarction, the body's compensatory mechanisms, and the potential complications leading to death, such as cardiac failure, pulmonary edema, fibrillation, and cardiac rupture.
We also examine coronary steal syndrome, a condition where increased cardiac activity diverts blood flow away from ischemic areas, exacerbating the condition. The long-term impact of myocardial infarction on cardiac reserve is discussed, showing how the heart's capacity to handle increased workloads is significantly reduced.
Angina pectoris, a common manifestation of ischemic heart disease, is analyzed in terms of its causes, presentation, and referred pain patterns. We identify factors that exacerbate anginal pain and discuss both medical and surgical treatment options.
Finally, the lecture includes a case study to apply theoretical knowledge to a practical scenario, helping students understand the real-world implications of coronary circulation and ischemic heart disease. The role of biochemical factors in cardiac pain and the interpretation of ECG changes in myocardial infarction are also covered.
Hemodialysis: Chapter 8, Complications During Hemodialysis, Part 2 - Dr.GawadNephroTube - Dr.Gawad
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/FHV_jNJUt3Y
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/D5kYfTMFA8E
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
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2. Overview
• Introduction.
• Why ANOVA instead of multiple t-tests?
• One way ANOVA.
• Assumptions of One way ANOVA.
• Steps in One way ANOVA.
• Example.
• Conclusion.
3. Introduction
• ANOVA is an abbreviation for the full name of the method:
Analysis Of Variance.
• Invented by R.A. Fisher in the 1918.
• ANOVA is used to test the significance of the difference
between more than two sample means.
• Name “ANOVA” is a misnomer as it compares mean to check
variance between group.
4. Summary Table of Statistical tests
Level of
Measurement
Sample Characteristics
Correlation
1 Sample
2 Sample K Sample (i.e., >2)
Independent Dependent Independent Dependent
Categorical or
Nominal
Χ2 or
bi-
nomina
l
Χ2 Macnarmar’s
Χ2
Χ2 Cochran’s Q
Rank or
Ordinal
Mann
Whitney U
Wilcoxin
Matched
Pairs Signed
Ranks
Kruskal
Wallis H
Friedman’s
ANOVA
Spearman’s
rho
Parametric
(Interval &
Ratio)
z test
or
t test
t test
between
groups
t test
within
groups
1 way ANOVA
between
groups
1 way ANOVA
(within or
repeated
measure)
Pearson’s
r
Factorial (2 way) ANOVA
Χ2
5. Why ANOVA instead of multiple t-tests?
• If you are comparing means between more than two groups,
we can choose two sample t-tests to compare the mean of one
group with the mean of the other groups?
:Before ANOVA, this was the only option available to
compare means between more than two groups.
• The problem with the multiple t-tests approach is that as the
number of groups increases, the number of two sample t-tests
also increases.
• As the number of tests increases the probability of making a
Type I error also increases.
6. One way ANOVA
• One way ANOVA (=F test) compares the mean of two or more
group whenever there is one independent variable is involved.
• It finds out whether there are any statistical significance
difference between their group means.
• If more then one independent variable is involved then it is
called as N way ANOVA.
• One way ANOVA specifically tests the null hypothesis.
• H0 = u1 = u2 = u3 = uk , u = group mean & k= no. of groups.
• If One way ANOVA shows a statistical significant result it
means HA is true.
7. Variables In One way ANOVA
• In an ANOVA, there are two kinds of variables: independent
and dependent
• The independent variable is controlled or manipulated by the
researcher.
• It is a categorical (discrete) variable used to form the
groupings of observations.
8. • There are two types of independent variables: active and
attribute.
• If the independent variable is an active variable then we
manipulate the values of the variable to study its affect on
another variable.
• For example, anxiety level is an active independent variable.
• An attribute independent variable is a variable where we do not
alter the variable during the study.
• For example, we might want to study the effect of age on
weight. We cannot change a person’s age, but we can study
people of different ages and weights.
9. • In the One-way ANOVA, only one independent variable is
considered, but there are two or more (theoretically any finite
number) levels of the independent variable.
• The independent variable is typically a categorical variable.
• The independent variable (or factor) divides individuals into two
or more groups or levels.
• The procedure is a One-way ANOVA, since there is only one
independent variable.
10. • The (continuous) dependent variable is defined as the variable
that is, or is presumed to be, the result of manipulating the
independent variable.
• In the One-way ANOVA, there is only one dependent variable –
and hypotheses are formulated about the means of the groups on
that dependent variable.
• The dependent variable differentiates individuals on quantitative
(continuous) dimension.
11. Assumptions of One way ANOVA
1) All populations involved follow a normal distribution.
2) Homogeneity of variances: The variance within each group
should be equal for all groups.
3) Independence of error: The error (variation of each value
around its own group mean) should be independent for each
value.
4) Only ONE independent variable should be checked whether
it produces a significant difference between the groups.
12. Example of One way ANOVA
Group A Group B Group C
160,110,118,124,13
2
122,136,124,126,12
0,138
148,126,124,128,14
0
N1= 5 N2= 6 N3= 5
Mean=128.8 Mean= 127.66 Mean=133.2
EXAMPLE: A study conducted to assess & compare the
effect of Treatment A vs Treatment B vs Treatment C
on SBP in a specified population.
13. ANOVA
One way ANOVA Three way ANOVA
Effect of Drugs on SBP
Two way ANOVA
Effect of Diet &
Drugs on SBP
Effect of Exercise,
Drugs, Diet on SBP
14. Steps in One way ANOVA
2. State Alpha
3. Calculate degrees of Freedom
4. Calculate test statistic
- Calculate variance between samples
- Calculate variance within the samples
- Calculate F statistic
1. State null & alternative hypotheses
15. Example- one way ANOVA
Example: A investigator wants to find out the
analgesic effect of aspirin vs diclofenac vs
ibuprofen in a group of population with equal
variances.
Aspirin Diclofenac Ibuprofen
1 5 9
4 10 3
7 2 2
9 1 4
3 7 2
16. Steps Involved
1.Null hypothesis –
No significant difference in the means of 3 samples
2. State Alpha i.e 0.05
3. Calculate degrees of Freedom
k-1 & n-k = 2 & 12
4. State decision rule
Table value of F at 5% level of significance for d.f 2 & 12 is
3.88
The calculated value of F > 3.88 , H0 will be rejected
5. Calculate test statistic
17. One way ANOVA: Table
Source of
Variation
SS (Sum of
Squares)
Degrees of
Freedom
MS (Mean
Square)
Variance
Ratio of F
Between
Samples
SSB k-1 MSB=
SSB/(k-1)
MSB/MSW
Within
Samples
SSW n-k MSW=
SSW/(n-k)
Total SS(Total) n-1
18. Calculating variance BETWEEN samples
1. Calculate the mean of each sample.
2. Calculate the Grand mean.
3. Take the difference between means of various samples &
grand average.
4. Square these deviations & obtain total which will give sum
of squares between samples (SSC)
5. Divide the total obtained in step 4 by the degrees of freedom
to calculate the mean sum of square between samples (MSC).
20. Variance BETWEEN samples (M1=4.8, M2=5,M3=4)
Sum of squares between samples (SSC) =
n1 (M1 – Grand avg)2 + n2 (M2– Grand avg)2 + n3(M3– Grand avg)2
5 ( 4.8 - 4.6) 2 + 5 ( 5 - 4.8) 2 + 5 ( 4.6 - 4.8) 2 = 0.6
Calculation of Mean sum of squares between samples (MSB)
=0.6/2 = 0.3
k= No of Samples, n= Total No of observations
21. Calculating Variance WITHIN Samples
1. Calculate mean value of each sample.
2. Take the deviations of the various items in a sample from the
mean values of the respective samples.
3. Square these deviations & obtain total which gives the sum
of square within the samples (SSE)
4. Divide the total obtained in 3rd step by the degrees of
freedom to calculate the mean sum of squares within samples
(MSE).
22. Variance WITHIN samples (M1= 4.8, M2= 5,M3= 4)
X1 (X1 – M1)2 X2 (X2– M2)2 X3 (X3– M3)2
1 14.4 7 4 2 4
4 0.64 5 0 9 25
7 4.84 10 25 3 1
9 17.64 2 9 2 4
3 3.24 1 16 4 0
40.76 54 34
Sum of squares within samples (SSE) = 40.76 + 54 +34 =128.76
Calculation of Mean Sum Of Squares within samples (MSW)
= 128.76/12 = 10.73
23. The mean sum of squares
1
k
SSC
MSC
kn
SSE
MSE
Calculation of MSC-
Mean sum of Squares
between samples
Calculation of MSE
Mean Sum Of
Squares within
samples
k= No of Samples, n= Total No of observations
24. Calculation of F statsitics
groupswithinyVariabilit
groupsbetweenyVariabilit
F
Compare the F-statistic value with F(critical) value which is
obtained by looking for it in F distribution tables against
degrees of freedom. The calculated value of F > table value
H0 is rejected
25. • F Value = MSB/MSW = 0.3/10.73 = 0.02.
The Table value of F at 5% level of significance for d.f 2 & 12 is 3.88
The calculated value of F < table value
H0 is accepted. Hence there no is significant difference in sample
means
26. Within-Group
Variance
Between-Group
Variance
Between-group variance is large relative to the
within-group variance, so F statistic will be
larger & > critical value, therefore statistically
significant .
Conclusion – At least one of group means is
significantly different from other group means
28. Post-hoc Tests
• Used to determine which mean or group of means is/are
significantly different from the others (significant F)
• Depending upon research design & research question:
Bonferroni (more powerful)
Only some pairs of sample means are to be tested
Desired alpha level is divided by no. of comparisons
Tukey’s HSD Procedure
when all pairs of sample means are to be tested
Scheffe’s Procedure (when sample sizes are unequal)
29. Application of ANOVA
• ANOVA is designed to detect differences among
means from populations subject to different treatments.
• ANOVA is a joint test, the equality of several
population means is tested simultaneously or jointly.
• ANOVA tests for the equality of several population
means by looking at two estimators of the population
variance (hence, analysis of variance).
30. Conclusion
• The one-way analysis of variance is used where there is a
single factor that will be set to three or more levels.
• t is not appropriate to analyse such data by repeated t-tests as
this will raise the risk of false positives above the acceptable
level of 5 per cent.
• If the ANOVA produces a significant result, this only tells us
that at least one level produces a different result from one of
the others.
• Follow-up tests needs to be carried out to find out which group
differs from each other.