The document discusses various research designs including qualitative research design, quantitative research design, action research design, case study design, causal design, cohort design, and cross-sectional design. For each design, it provides definitions, purposes, advantages, and limitations. The key information provided is the definitions and purposes of the different research designs as well as lists of their advantages and limitations.
This document discusses correlational research design, which examines relationships between variables without manipulation. It has independent and dependent variables, and the researcher determines how changes in one variable correlate with changes in the other through statistical analysis. Correlational design can be either prospective, observing relationships from cause to effect over time, or retrospective, examining current phenomena in relation to past events. Examples given are a prospective study of tsunami stress and a retrospective study of adolescent drug abuse risk factors.
Experimental research is the most conclusive scientific method because the researcher directly manipulates the independent variable and studies its effects on the dependent variable. This allows the researcher to determine causation, unlike other research methods. The purpose is to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Basic steps include having an experimental group that receives a treatment and a control group that does not, then comparing outcomes. Key characteristics include random assignment to control threats to internal validity. Poor designs do not include control groups or random assignment, making it impossible to determine if results are due to the treatment.
This document discusses research questions, defining them as questions researchers aim to answer. It notes the importance of research questions is that they help refine broad topics into specific, researchable variables. The document also outlines characteristics of good research questions, such as being relevant, interesting, focused, and able to be researched. It provides examples of how broad topics can be narrowed into more defined research questions.
Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ in important ways. Quantitative research uses statistical analysis of numeric data from standardized instruments, while qualitative research relies on descriptive analysis of text or image data collected from a small number of individuals. The two approaches also differ in how the research problem is identified, how literature is reviewed, how data is collected and analyzed, and how findings are reported. Common quantitative designs include experimental, correlational, and survey designs, while qualitative designs include grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative, and action research designs. The best approach depends on matching the research questions and goals.
This document discusses different types of experimental research designs, including their advantages and disadvantages. It covers true experimental designs like pretest-posttest and Solomon four-group designs. It also discusses quasi-experimental designs like nonequivalent control group and time series designs, as well as pre-experimental designs. Threats to internal and external validity are explained for different designs.
Research design and research approach are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. Research design provides the overall plan for conducting a research study, including key elements like the research approach, variables, sampling, data collection methods, and analysis. The research approach, such as qualitative or quantitative, is an important component that governs the research design. An effective research design considers factors like the nature of the research problem, resources, participants, ethics, and controls extraneous variables. It allows the researcher to systematically answer research questions or test hypotheses.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines case study research as an in-depth exploration of a bounded system or case over time through detailed data collection from multiple sources. The document outlines the purposes, characteristics, types, advantages, and criticisms of case study research. It also discusses data collection techniques and implications for teaching.
The document discusses research design and provides details on different types of research designs. It begins by defining research design and outlines the key decisions that must be made, including what, where, when, how much, and how data will be collected and analyzed. It then discusses different types of research designs for exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing studies. Specific methods for qualitative and quantitative research designs are also outlined.
This document discusses nonexperimental research design. It defines nonexperimental research as observing phenomena as they occur naturally without introducing external variables. The main types of nonexperimental design discussed are descriptive design, correlational design, developmental design, and epidemiological design. Descriptive design aims to observe and describe variables, while correlational design examines relationships between variables. Developmental design looks at phenomena over time using cross-sectional or longitudinal approaches. Epidemiological design studies disease distribution and causes through cohort or case-control methods. Advantages of nonexperimental design include real-life applicability while disadvantages relate to lack of control over variables.
True experimental studies aim to establish cause and effect through the manipulation of an independent variable. They require a control group, experimental group(s), random assignment, and a researcher-manipulated variable. The control group receives no treatment while the experimental group receives the treatment. Outcomes are then compared between groups. There are three main true experimental designs: post-test only, pre-test post-test, and Solomon four-group, which combines elements of the first two designs to reduce errors. An example true experiment tests whether Drug X reduces anxiety levels through random assignment of participants to control and experimental groups receiving different doses or a placebo.
This document discusses experimental research design. It begins by defining experimental research as observation under controlled conditions where the independent variable is manipulated through interventions. True experimental designs require manipulation of the independent variable, a control group, and random assignment of subjects. Several true experimental designs are described, including post-test only, pretest-post-test, Solomon four-group, factorial, and randomized block designs. Key aspects of each design like pretesting, treatment, and post-testing are explained through examples.
This document discusses research hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are important as they help translate research problems into predicted outcomes and guide methodology. Good hypotheses are clear, testable, and relevant to the research. Hypotheses can be simple, complex, associative, causal, directional, or non-directional. They may be generated from theoretical frameworks, previous studies, literature or experiences. The null hypothesis states there is no relationship between variables while the research hypothesis predicts a relationship.
The document discusses different aspects of research design including what research design is, its key components, and types of research design. It defines research design as the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analyzing data to combine relevance to the research purpose with efficient procedures. The main components of research design discussed are sampling design, observational design, statistical design, and operational design. It also outlines features of a good research design and key concepts like dependent and independent variables, extraneous variables, control, and research hypotheses. Finally, it discusses research design for exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing research studies.
This document provides an overview of quantitative research designs that are frequently used in educational research, including experimental, correlational, and survey designs. It defines experimental design and describes different types of experimental designs such as true experiments, quasi-experiments, and factorial designs. It also discusses correlational research design, survey research design, and provides the objectives, characteristics, and steps for each design. Finally, it discusses some common ethical issues for each research design.
This document provides information on research design. It begins by defining research design and its key elements. Research design aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It indicates decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, and by what means for a research study.
The document then discusses the need for research design, which includes facilitating smooth research operations, minimizing bias and maximizing reliability of results, providing guidance to researchers, and preventing misleading conclusions without a design. Key features of a good research design are also outlined.
Finally, the document outlines different types of research design including exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, experimental, laboratory experiments, and field experiments. The differences between exploratory and descriptive research designs
This document discusses experimental design in statistics. It defines experimental design as a planned interference by the researcher to manipulate events rather than just observe them. It discusses key principles of experimental design like replication and randomization. It also describes different types of experimental designs like completely randomized design, randomized block design, and Latin square design; and notes that researchers use experimental designs to make causal inferences and rule out alternative explanations. The goal of experimental design is to gain unambiguous information about what factors cause the effects being studied.
The document discusses research design. It defines research design as a blueprint that outlines how, where, and on whom a research study will be conducted. Experimental research design specifically examines the effect of independent variables on dependent variables by manipulating the independent variable. True experimental designs allow researchers to control extraneous variables and isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Several true experimental designs are described including post-test only, pretest-posttest, Solomon four-group, factorial, randomized block, and crossover designs.
This document discusses non-experimental research design. It defines non-experimental design as research where variables are observed as they naturally occur without manipulation. It lists several types of non-experimental designs including descriptive, correlational, developmental, epidemiological, and survey designs. Descriptive design aims to accurately describe characteristics of individuals, situations, or groups. Correlational design examines relationships between variables without manipulation. Developmental design studies phenomena over time. Epidemiological design investigates disease distribution and causes. Survey design collects self-reported data from a sample to describe populations. Advantages are that they study real-world situations, but disadvantages are relationships between variables cannot be definitely concluded as causal.
Hukmaram Devilal Pawar is the Head of Accountancy Department and Assistant Professor at Smt. S.S.Patel Nootan Science and Commerce College in Visnagar, India. He has obtained several degrees including an M.Com, MBA, M.Phil, and is pursuing a Ph.D. The document defines research as a systematic, scientific process of investigation aimed at discovering new facts. It lists characteristics of research such as being purposeful, helpful for decision making, and a voyage of discovery. The types and steps of the research process are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of nonexperimental research design. It begins with definitions of nonexperimental research as research that observes phenomena as they naturally occur without introducing external variables or controlling settings. The document then discusses reasons for using nonexperimental design such as when variables cannot be ethically or practically manipulated. It also outlines various types of nonexperimental research design including surveys, Delphi surveys, correlation design, methodological studies, and comparative studies.
The document discusses various types of research including applied research, basic research, correlational research, descriptive research, ethnographic research, experimental research, and exploratory research. Applied research seeks practical solutions to problems, while basic research expands knowledge without a direct application. Correlational research examines relationships between variables without determining cause and effect. Descriptive research provides accurate portrayals of characteristics, and ethnographic research involves in-depth study of cultures. Experimental research establishes cause-and-effect through controlled manipulation of variables.
This document discusses strategies for ensuring validity, reliability, and ethics in qualitative research. It defines internal validity, reliability, external validity, and ethics in qualitative research. Some key strategies discussed for enhancing validity and reliability include triangulation, member checks, peer examination, audit trails, and thick description to allow transferability. The document emphasizes that the credibility of qualitative research also depends on the ethical practices and integrity of the researcher.
This document outlines the key components and processes of conducting research. It discusses defining research problems and objectives, developing hypotheses, reviewing related literature, choosing appropriate research designs (such as descriptive, experimental, correlational), determining sample sizes and sampling methods, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings. It also covers important concepts like validity, reliability, and operationalizing definitions. The overall purpose is to provide guidance to researchers on how to properly plan and carry out a study.
The document summarizes a lecture on research methodology. It discusses:
1. The key elements of a research design process including defining the research problem, objectives, hypotheses, variables, unit of analysis, and coverage.
2. The basic assumptions of science and the scientific approach.
3. The role of methodology in providing rules for communication, reasoning, and establishing objectivity.
4. The limitations of applying science in social science research due to human behavior being complex and unpredictable.
ABC analysis is a technique for inventory control that classifies items into A, B, and C categories based on annual consumption value. A items account for the majority of total consumption value while C items account for the least. VED analysis classifies items as vital, essential, or desirable based on their criticality. Combining ABC and VED analysis provides a 9-box framework to prioritize control and service levels for different inventory items based on consumption value and criticality.
This document discusses capacity and inventory management. It covers topics like capacity management, factors that impact capacity, capacity forecasting, modifying capacity, selecting capacity. It also discusses inventory management, reasons for inventory, inventory types, costs, EOQ model, reorder point/level, and ABC analysis for classifying inventory items. The key aspects of managing both capacity and inventory effectively are identified.
Descriptive and correlational research aim to observe and describe characteristics or relationships between variables. Descriptive research provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics or behaviors, while correlational research examines relationships between two or more variables without manipulation. Both approaches are non-experimental and can be used to explore phenomena, identify problems or form hypotheses for future research. The document outlines the nature, aims, types, steps and examples of descriptive and correlational research methods.
This document discusses different types of marketing research design. It begins by defining research design and explaining the three main categories: exploratory, descriptive, and causal research. Exploratory research is conducted when little is known about a problem and can involve secondary research, interviews, and focus groups. Descriptive research answers questions like who, what, where, and how through cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. Causal research determines cause-and-effect through experiments. The document also discusses test marketing and considerations for selecting test market cities.
This document discusses material management and inventory control. It defines material management as planning, procuring, storing, and providing materials to support production activities. Key functions of material management include material requirements planning, purchasing, inventory planning and control, and quality control. Maintaining the proper level and placement of inventory is important to protect production from disruptions and ensure customer demand is met. The objectives of inventory control are to balance adequate supply with minimizing costs through techniques like ABC analysis.
This acknowledgement thanks the lecturer for providing guidance and encouragement to complete an assignment on time. It also expresses gratitude to group members for their efforts and cooperation in finishing the project. Finally, it acknowledges friends for their support by filling out questionnaires.
Inventory control involves regulating inventory levels according to predetermined norms to reduce costs. It aims to balance ordering, holding, and stockout costs. The ABC analysis technique categorizes inventory into A, B, and C items based on annual consumption value to focus control efforts where they are needed most. VED classification groups items as vital, essential, or desirable based on the criticality of inventory to operations. FSN analysis looks at item movement patterns to identify fast, slow, or non-moving inventory.
This document discusses inventory management concepts including reorder point, order quantity, lead time, demand rate, carrying costs, and ordering costs. The optimal order quantity is derived as Qopt = √(2CoD/Cc) where Co is the ordering cost, D is annual demand, and Cc is the annual carrying cost per unit. The reorder point is calculated as R = dL + zσdL where d is the average daily demand, L is the lead time, σd is the standard deviation of daily demand, and z corresponds to the desired service level. Safety stock, which is added to the reorder point, is calculated as zσdL.
The document acknowledges and thanks several individuals for their support during the completion of the nursing case study. It dedicates the case study to enhancing nursing education for students and providing a reference for future researchers. Finally, it includes a nursing student's prayer thanking God for helping with the challenges of nursing school and asking for guidance in developing compassion and serving others through nursing.
The document discusses inventory control, which involves maintaining desired inventory levels to balance economic and production needs. It describes different types of inventory like raw materials, work in progress, and finished goods. Effective inventory control requires planning inventory levels, ordering, receiving, storing, and recording inventory. Key aspects of inventory control include determining maximum and minimum inventory levels, reorder points, and economic order quantities.
Sampling design, sampling errors, sample size determinationVishnupriya T H
This presentation contains census and sample survey, implications of a sample design, steps in sample design, criteria of selecting a sampling procedure
This document provides an overview of different types of research designs, including exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis-testing designs. It defines what a research design is and lists key features of a good research design such as minimizing bias. For each type of design, it provides a brief definition and highlights important aspects to consider, such as the objective, data collection methods, sample selection, and data analysis. The overall purpose is to introduce and compare different approaches to research design.
The document acknowledges those who helped and supported the author during their internship and project work at Britannia Industries LTD. The author thanks their manager for providing the opportunity, two other officials for guidance and encouragement, and staff members at Britannia for their help during the project. The author also thanks the director of their institute for allowing them to undertake the project.
The 7 step research process includes: 1) defining the research problem, 2) reviewing relevant literature, 3) formulating testable hypotheses, 4) designing the research methodology, 5) collecting primary data through methods like surveys and interviews, 6) analyzing the collected data, and 7) interpreting the findings and reporting the results. The overall goal is to gather information to initiate, modify, or terminate investments or projects through a systematic process of exploring an issue, collecting evidence, and drawing conclusions.
This document provides the syllabus and curriculum for the MBA (Full Time) program at Barkatullah University in Bhopal, India. It includes:
- An overview of the 4 semester program structure and course breakdown. Core courses cover management fundamentals, while specialization and elective courses allow for different areas of focus.
- Details of each semester, including course codes, names, credit hours and brief descriptions of course content for the core courses.
- Information on specialization tracks and elective courses that can be taken in semesters 3 and 4. Options include areas like marketing, finance, IT, and entrepreneurship.
- Schedules, exam structures and reading materials for the
This document discusses inventory control and management. It defines inventory as physical resources held for sale or transformation, and inventory systems as policies that monitor levels and determine replenishment needs. Reasons for holding inventory include stabilizing production, taking advantage of discounts, and meeting demand during replenishment periods. The objectives of inventory control are to track inventory levels of the right quality and quantity. Costs associated with inventory include purchase, capital, ordering, carrying, and shortage costs. Decisions around inventory planning include determining order quantities and timing.
The document provides summaries of different types of research designs, including their definitions, purposes, advantages, and limitations. It discusses exploratory, descriptive, experimental, causal, cohort, case study, action research, cross-sectional, and market research designs. For each design, it outlines what information can be learned from studies using that design and what limitations exist in determining causation or generalizing findings. The overall purpose is to help readers understand when and how to appropriately apply different research methodologies.
The document outlines the key steps in the research process, including exploration, literature review, developing research questions and hypotheses, research design, data collection and analysis, hypothesis testing, and preparing the final research report. It provides details on each step, such as how to conduct an effective literature review by using keywords and reviewing a variety of sources. The document also defines important terms and concepts used in research.
- Case study is one of the most widely used qualitative research approaches and involves an in-depth study of a phenomenon within its real-world context.
- There is no set design for case studies as the design depends on the specific case and research problem being examined. Key elements of case study research include defining the case, collecting multiple types of data over an extended period of time, and representing both insider and outsider perspectives.
- Case studies aim to provide rich descriptions of phenomena and develop explanations for observations. Sound case studies demonstrate thorough data collection and use valid and reliable research methods.
This document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists its key characteristics as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research including pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides details on definitions, purposes, and examples. It also discusses research design, hypotheses, variables, and experimental versus non-experimental designs.
Research Methodology, Sampling & Hypothesis.pptSameer63064
The document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists the characteristics of research as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research such as pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides details on the definition, purpose, and key aspects. It also discusses topics such as sampling methods, hypotheses, research design, and data collection in research.
The document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists the characteristics of research as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research such as pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides details on the definition, purpose, and key aspects. It also discusses topics such as sampling methods, hypotheses, research design, and data collection in research.
The document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists the characteristics of research as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research such as pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides details on the definition, purpose, and key aspects. It also discusses topics such as sampling methods, hypotheses, research design, and data collection in research.
This document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists its key characteristics as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research including pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides definitions and discusses their purposes. It also covers research design, hypotheses, and components of research design such as objectives and variables.
This document provides an overview of various research methodologies. It defines research and lists its key characteristics as systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. It then describes different types of research including pure and applied research, exploratory research, descriptive research, diagnostic studies, evaluation studies, action research, experimental research, analytical studies, historical research, surveys, and case studies. For each type of research, the document provides details on definitions, purposes, and examples. It also discusses research design, hypotheses, variables, and experimental versus non-experimental designs.
Research Methodology of different data analysis slides.pptxtalhachemist222
General. All solvents were reagent grade or HPLC grade. Unless otherwise noted, all materials
were obtained from commercial suppliers and used without further purification. Melting points
were obtained on a Mel-Temp apparatus and are uncorrected. 1
H NMR spectra were recorded at
400 MHz. 13C NMR spectra were recorded at 100 MHz. Flash column chromatography was carried
out by Biotage Isolera One using ISCO RediSep silica gel cartridges. Analytical HPLC was
performed on an Agilent 1200 series HPLC system equipped with an Agilent G1315D DAD
detector (detection at 220 nm) and an Agilent 6120 quadrupole MS detector using an Agilent
Eclipse Plus C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 3.5 μm) at a flow rate of 1.25 mL/min. The HPLC
solvent system consisted of deionized water and acetonitrile, both containing 0.1% formic acid.
The mobile phase in HPLC consisted of 5% acetonitrile/95% water for 0.25 min followed by a
gradient to 40% acetonitrile/60% water over 1.5 min and then a gradient to 85% acetonitrile/15%
water over 2.25 min. Unless otherwise noted, all final compounds biologically tested were
confirmed to be of ≥95% purity by the HPLC methods described above. No unexpected or
unusually high safety hazards were encountered during the course of the experiments described
below.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg, 0.72
mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl acetate (79 mg,
0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 °C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue was
purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 99.7 mg (66% yield) of compound 5 d as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100
mg, 0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl
isobutyrate (99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 °C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and
the residue was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel
cartridge (30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 136.9 mg (79% yield) of compound 5e as a white
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg,
0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl butyrate
(99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 o
C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue
was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 152.9 mg (89% yield) of compound 5f as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotinic acid 3 (100 mg,
0.72 mmol) and K2CO3 (150 mg, 1.09 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was added chloromethyl butyrate
(99 mg, 0.72 mmol). After stirring at 50 o
C for 5 h, DMF was removed in vacuo and the residue
was purified using a Biotage Isolera One flash purification system with a silica gel cartridge
(30→100% EtOAc in Hexanes) to give 152.9 mg (89% yield) of compound 5f as a white solid.
To a solution of 6-aminonicotine
The document discusses key concepts related to research including research projects, topics, proposals, problems, objectives, hypotheses, methodology, design, and limitations. It notes that a research project uses scientific methods to achieve defined objectives, such as testing or creating new knowledge. Choosing a research topic is an ongoing process of exploring, defining, and refining ideas on a subject that is narrow yet allows finding adequate information. A research proposal explains what is being researched, why, and how through a structured formal document. Research design broadly outlines the total pattern of conducting a research project including objectives, methods, and outcomes. Marketing research systematically gathers and analyzes qualitative and quantitative data about issues relating to marketing products and services.
Qualities of a good research topic presentation.pptxSharonMutithu
Good research has several key qualities:
1. It is ethical, following research guidelines to protect subjects and ensure honesty.
2. The conclusions can be applied more broadly (external validity) and to real-world settings (ecological validity).
3. The entire process is guided by logical thinking and identifies flaws.
4. An appropriate methodology is used to gather accurate data and apply the best analysis methods.
The document provides an overview of research methodology. It discusses key aspects of the research process including developing research questions and hypotheses, research design, data collection methods, and data analysis. Some common data collection methods described are surveys, experiments, case studies, observations, interviews, and focus groups. The document also covers qualitative and quantitative research approaches, as well as descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory research.
Qualitative research seeks to understand a research problem from the perspectives of the local population involved. It provides information about the human side of issues by identifying factors like social norms, beliefs, and relationships. When used with quantitative methods, qualitative research can help interpret complex realities and data. Valid qualitative research comprehensively collects data through methods like interviews and observation from participants selected through strategies such as purposive and snowball sampling. It analyzes data appropriately and corroborates findings through techniques including member checking and triangulation.
Develop three research questions on a topic for which you are suzannewarch
Develop three research questions on a topic for which you are most interest.
Access the "Types of Research Design" site.
Select the appropriate research design for your research questions.
In your own words, explain the purpose of the design, what these type of studies
tell you
and what they
don't tell you
and.
Finally, explain why this design is appropriate for the respective research questions.
A research question is a...
clear
focused
concise
complex
arguable
Instructions for all Forums:
Each week, learners will post one initial post per week. This post must demonstrate comprehension of the course materials, the ability to apply that knowledge in the real world. Learners will engage with the instructor and peers throughout the learning week. To motivate engaged discussion, posts are expected to be on time with regular interaction throughout the week. All posts should demonstrate college level writing skills. To promote vibrant discussion as we would in a face to face classroom, formatted citations and references are not required. Quotes should not be used at all, or used sparingly. If you quote a source quotation marks should be used and an APA formatted citation and reference provided.
Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study
.
The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Note that your research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the other way around!
De Vaus, D. A.
Research Design in Social Research
. London: SAGE, 2001; Trochim, William M.K.
Research Methods Knowledge Base
. 2006.
General Structure and Writing Style
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible
. In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.
With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations far too early, before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be undermined.
The length and complexity of describing research designs in your paper can vary considerably, but any well-developed design will achieve the following
:
Identify the res ...
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It defines qualitative research as research that analyzes non-numerical data such as words, pictures, or objects to understand human behavior and the reasons behind it. The document outlines several key aspects of qualitative research, including that the design is not predetermined but develops as the research proceeds, it uses interpretive methodologies rather than experimental ones, and it aims to provide an in-depth understanding of contexts and perspectives rather than make generalized conclusions. The document also discusses researcher bias, reactivity, sampling, data collection and analysis methods in qualitative research.
Explanatory, Descriptive and Exploratory Research.pptxDulaSanbato1
Research can be classified in different ways such as by purpose, process, and outcomes. There are several types of research including exploratory research, descriptive research, and explanatory research. Exploratory research is conducted when little is known about a topic and aims to gain insights rather than test hypotheses. Descriptive research describes characteristics of a topic as it exists currently. Explanatory research builds on exploratory and descriptive research to understand phenomena by discovering causal relationships between variables and answering "why" questions. The goals, strengths, and weaknesses of each type of research are outlined.
ppt presentation research presentation on classificationkeebeek sanbato
Research can be classified in different ways such as by purpose, process, and outcomes. There are several types of research including exploratory research, descriptive research, and explanatory research. Exploratory research is conducted when little is known about a topic and aims to gain insights rather than test hypotheses. Descriptive research describes characteristics of a topic as it exists currently. Explanatory research builds on exploratory and descriptive research to understand phenomena by discovering causal relationships between variables and answering "why" questions. The goals, strengths, and weaknesses of each type of research are outlined.
AI Risk Management: ISO/IEC 42001, the EU AI Act, and ISO/IEC 23894PECB
As artificial intelligence continues to evolve, understanding the complexities and regulations regarding AI risk management is more crucial than ever.
Amongst others, the webinar covers:
• ISO/IEC 42001 standard, which provides guidelines for establishing, implementing, maintaining, and continually improving AI management systems within organizations
• insights into the European Union's landmark legislative proposal aimed at regulating AI
• framework and methodologies prescribed by ISO/IEC 23894 for identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks associated with AI systems
Presenters:
Miriama Podskubova - Attorney at Law
Miriama is a seasoned lawyer with over a decade of experience. She specializes in commercial law, focusing on transactions, venture capital investments, IT, digital law, and cybersecurity, areas she was drawn to through her legal practice. Alongside preparing contract and project documentation, she ensures the correct interpretation and application of European legal regulations in these fields. Beyond client projects, she frequently speaks at conferences on cybersecurity, online privacy protection, and the increasingly pertinent topic of AI regulation. As a registered advocate of Slovak bar, certified data privacy professional in the European Union (CIPP/e) and a member of the international association ELA, she helps both tech-focused startups and entrepreneurs, as well as international chains, to properly set up their business operations.
Callum Wright - Founder and Lead Consultant Founder and Lead Consultant
Callum Wright is a seasoned cybersecurity, privacy and AI governance expert. With over a decade of experience, he has dedicated his career to protecting digital assets, ensuring data privacy, and establishing ethical AI governance frameworks. His diverse background includes significant roles in security architecture, AI governance, risk consulting, and privacy management across various industries, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: June 26, 2024
Tags: ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, EU AI Act, ISO/IEC 23894
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Training: ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
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The membership Module in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Some business organizations give membership to their customers to ensure the long term relationship with those customers. If the customer is a member of the business then they get special offers and other benefits. The membership module in odoo 17 is helpful to manage everything related to the membership of multiple customers.
Beyond the Advance Presentation for By the Book 9John Rodzvilla
In June 2020, L.L. McKinney, a Black author of young adult novels, began the #publishingpaidme hashtag to create a discussion on how the publishing industry treats Black authors: “what they’re paid. What the marketing is. How the books are treated. How one Black book not reaching its parameters casts a shadow on all Black books and all Black authors, and that’s not the same for our white counterparts.” (Grady 2020) McKinney’s call resulted in an online discussion across 65,000 tweets between authors of all races and the creation of a Google spreadsheet that collected information on over 2,000 titles.
While the conversation was originally meant to discuss the ethical value of book publishing, it became an economic assessment by authors of how publishers treated authors of color and women authors without a full analysis of the data collected. This paper would present the data collected from relevant tweets and the Google database to show not only the range of advances among participating authors split out by their race, gender, sexual orientation and the genre of their work, but also the publishers’ treatment of their titles in terms of deal announcements and pre-pub attention in industry publications. The paper is based on a multi-year project of cleaning and evaluating the collected data to assess what it reveals about the habits and strategies of American publishers in acquiring and promoting titles from a diverse group of authors across the literary, non-fiction, children’s, mystery, romance, and SFF genres.
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2. The research design refers to the overall
strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring
you will effectively address the research
problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. Note that your research problem
determines the type of design you can use,
not the other way around!
3. General Structure and Writing Style
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained
enables you to effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as
possible. In social sciences research, obtaining evidence relevant to the
research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to
test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a phenomenon.
Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary
considerably, but any sound design will do the following things:
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central
to the problem selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test
of the hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in
determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
4. The word qualitative implies an emphasis on the qualities of
entities and on processes and meanings that are not
experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in
terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative
researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the
intimate relationship between the researcher and what is
studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. Such
researchers emphasize the value-laden nature of inquiry. They
seek answers to questions that stress how ocial experience is
created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies
emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships
between variables, not processes. Proponents of such studies
claim that their work is done from within a value-free
framework.*
Qualitative forms of inquiry are considered by many social and
behavioral scientists to be as much a perspective on how to
approach investigating a research problem as it is a metho
5. The advantage of using qualitative methods is that they generate rich, detailed
data that leave the participants' perspectives intact and provide multiple
contexts for understanding the phenomenon under study.
Among the specific strengths of using qualitative methods to study social
science research problems is the ability to:
Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world that cannot be understood or
experienced in numerical data and statistical analysis;
Provide the researcher with the perspective of the participants of the study
through immersion in a culture or situation and as a result of direct interaction
with them;
Allow the researcher to describe existing phenomena and current situations;
Develop flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and
interpretation of collected information;
Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering new ways of understanding;
Provide a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation;
Interact with the research subjects in their own language and on their own terms;
and,
Create a descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.
6. Some specific limitations associated with using qualitative
methods to study research problems in the social sciences
include:
Drifting away from the original objectives of the research in
response to the changing nature of the context;
Arriving at different conclusions based on the same information
depending on the personal characteristics of the researcher;
An inability to investigate causality between different research
phenomena;
Difficulty in explaining the difference in the quality and
quantity of information obtained from different respondents
and arriving at different, non-consistent conclusions;
Requires a high level of experience from the researcher to
obtain the targeted information from the respondent;
May lack consistency and reliability because the researcher can
employ different probing techniques and the respondent can
choose to tell some particular stories and ignore others; and,
Generation of a signficant amount of data that cannot be
randomized into managable parts for analysis.
7. In quantitative research, your goal is to
determine the relationship between one thing
(an independent variable) and another (a
dependent or outcome variable) in a
population. Quantitative research designs are
either descriptive (subjects usually measured
once) or experimental (subjects measured
before and after a treatment). A descriptive
study establishes only associations between
variables. An experiment establishes causality.
Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic
and the objective, focusing on logic, numbers,
and unchanging static data and detailed,
convergent reasoning rather than divergent
reasoning.
8. Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number
of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the
results;
Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results.
Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide
summaries of data that support generalizations about
the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish
this, quantitative research usually involves few variables
and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to
ensure validity and reliability;
Applying well-establshed standards means that the
research can be replicated, and then analyzed and
compared with similar studies;
You can summarize vast sources of information and
make comparisons across categories and over time; and,
Personal bias can be avoided by researchers by keeping
a 'distance' from participating subjects and employing
subjects unknown to them.
9. Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study
research problems in the social sciences include:
Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss
contextual detail;
Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural
bias" and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the
researcher instead of the participating subject;
Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed
narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a
level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not
normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as
opposed to "real world results"; and,
Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject
and in some cases might just be the closest match to preconceived hypothesis.
10. Action Research Design
Definition and Purpose
The essentials of action research design follow a
characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance
is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is
developed and plans are made for some form of
interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out
(the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent
observations are collected in various forms. The new
interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic
process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding
of (or implement able solution for) the problem is achieved.
The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended
to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting
with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and
moving through several interventions and evaluations.
11. ADVANTAGES:-
1. A collaborative and adaptive
research design that lends itself
to use in work or community
situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic
and solution-driven research
rather than testing theories.
3. When practitioners use action
research it has the potential to
increase the amount they learn
consciously from their
experience. The action research
cycle can also be
regarded as a learning cycle.
4. Action search studies often
have direct and obvious
relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls
or preemption of direction by
the researcher.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. It is harder to do than
conducting conventional studies
because the researcher takes
on responsibilities for
encouraging change as well as
for research.
2. Action research is much
harder to write up because you
probably can’t use a standard
format to report your findings
effectively.
3. Personal over-involvement of
the researcher may bias
research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action
research to achieve its twin
outcomes of action (e.g.
change) and research (e.g.
understanding) is time-
consuming and complex to
conduct.
12. Case Study Design
Definition and Purpose
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular
research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad
field of research into
one or a few easily researchable examples. The case
study research design is also useful for testing
whether a specific theory and model actually applies
to phenomena in
the real world. It is a useful design when not much is
known about a phenomenon.
13. ADVANTAGES:-
1. Approach excels at bringing us to an
understanding of a complex issue
through detailed contextual analysis of
a limited number of events or
conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study
design can apply a vaiety of
methodologies and rely on a variety of
sources to investigate a research
problem.
3. Design can extend experience or
add strength to what is already known
through previous research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make
wide use of this research design to
examine contemporary real-life
situations and provide the basis for the
application of concepts and theories
and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed
descriptions of specific and rare cases.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. A single or small number of cases
offers little basis for establishing
reliability or to generalize the findings
to a wider population of people,
places, or things.
2. The intense exposure to study of
the case may bias a researcher's
interpretation of the findings.
3. Design does not facilitate
assessment of cause and effect
relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing,
making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative
or typical of the larger problem being
investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is
because it represents a very unusual or
unique phenomenon or problem for
study, then your intepretation of the
findings can only apply to that
particular case.
14. Causal Design
Definition and Purpose
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form,
“If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure
what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and
assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations
that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic
perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an
independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in
variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:
Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an
association between the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was
involved, one must see that cases were exposed to variation in
the independent variable before variation in the dependent
variable.
Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is
not due to variation in a third variable.
15. ADVANTAGES:-
1. Causality research designs
helps researchers understand
why the world works the way
it does through the process of
proving a causal link between
variables and eliminating
other possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
3. There is greater
confidence the study has
internal validity due to the
systematic subject selection
and equity of groups being
compared
LIMITATIONS:-
1. Not all relationships are casual! The
possibility always exists that, by sheer
coincidence, two unrelated events
appear to be related [e.g.,
Punxatawney Phil could accurately
predict the duration of Winter for five
consecutive years but, the fact
remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
2. Conclusions about causal
relationships are difficult to determine
due to a variety of extraneous and
confounding variables that exist in a
social environment. This means
causality can only be inferred, never
proven.
3. If two variables are correlated, the
cause must come before the effect.
However, even though two variables
might be causally related, it can
sometimes be difficult to determine
which variable comes first and
therefore to establish which variable is
the actual cause and which is the
actual effect.
16. Cohort Design
Definition and Purpose
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences,
a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time
involving members of a population which the subject or representative member
comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a
quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence
within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar characteristics that are
relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying
statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative
framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation.
Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed.“ Open Cohort Studies [dynamic
populations, such as the population of Los Angeles] involve a population that is
defined just by the state of being a part of the study in question (and being
monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually
defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open
cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as,
incidence rates and variants thereof.
Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical
trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time
and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given
this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
17. ADVANTAGES
1. The use of cohorts is often mandatory
because a randomized control study may be
unethical. For example, you cannot
deliberately expose people to asbestos, you
can only study its effects on those who have
already been exposed. Research that measures
risk factors often relies on cohort designs.
2. Because cohort studies measure potential
causes before the outcome has occurred, they
can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded
the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as
to which is the cause and which is the effect.
3. Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can
provide insight into effects over time and
related to a variety of different types of
changes [e.g., social, cultural,
political,economic, etc.].
4. Either original data or secondary data can
be used in this design.
LIMITATIONS
1. In cases where a comparative analysis of two
cohorts is made [e.g., studying the effects of
one group exposed to asbestos and one that
has not], a researcher cannot
control for all other factors that might differ
between the two groups. These factors are
known as confounding variables.
2. Cohort studies can end up taking a long time
to complete if the researcher must wait for the
conditions of interest to develop within the
group. This also increases the
chance that key variables change during the
course of the study, potentially impacting the
validity of the findings.
3. Because of the lack of randominization in
the cohort design, its external validity is lower
than that of study designs where the
researcher randomly assigns
participants.
18. Cross-Sectional Design
Definition and Purpose
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive
features: no time dimension, a reliance on existing
differences rather than change following intervention;
and, groups
are selected based on existing differences rather than
random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only
measure diffrerences between or from among a
variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than
change. As such, researchers using this design can
only employ a relative passive approach to making
causal inferences based on findings.
.
19. ADVANTAGES
1. Cross-sectional studies provide a
'snapshot' of the outcome and the
characteristics associated with it, at a
specific point in time.
2. Unlike the experimental design where
there is an active intervention by the
researcher to produce and measure
change or to create differences, cross-
sectional designs focus on studying and
drawing inferences from existing
differences between people, subjects, or
phenomena.
3. Entails collecting data at and
concerning one point in time. While
longitudinal studies involve taking
multiple measures over an extended
period of time, crosssectional research is
focused on finding relationships between
variables at one moment in time.
4. Groups identified for study are
purposely selected based upon existing
differences in the sample rather than
seeking random sampling.
5. Cross-section studies are capable of
using data from a large number of
subjects and, unlike observational
studies, is not geographically bound.
6. Can estimate prevalence of an
outcome of interest because the sample
is usually taken from the whole
population.
7. Because cross-sectional designs
generally use survey techniques to gather
data, they are relatively inexpensive and
take up little time to conduct.
LIMITATIONS
1. Finding people, subjects, or
phenomena to study that are
very similar except in one
specific variable can be difficult.
2. Results are static and time
bound and, therefore, give no
indication of a sequence of
events or reveal historical
contexts.
3. Studies cannot be utilized to
establish cause and effect
relationships.
4. Provide only a snapshot of
analysis so there is always the
possibility that a study could
have differing results if another
time-frame had been chosen.
5. There is no follow up to the
findings
20. Descriptive Design
Definition and Purpose
Descriptive research designs help provide
answers to the questions of who, what, when,
where, and how associated with a particular
research problem; a descriptive study
cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why.
Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of the
phenomena and to describe "what
exists" with respect to variables or conditions in
a situation.
21. ADVANTAGES:-
1. The subject is being observed in a
completely natural and unchanged
natural environment. True
experiments, whilst giving analyzable
data, often adversely influence
the normal behavior of the subject.
2. Descriptive research is often used as
a pre-cursor to more quantitatively
research designs, the general overview
giving some valuable pointers as to
what variables
are worth testing quantitatively.
3. If the limitations are understood,
they can be a useful tool in developing
a more focused study.
4. Descriptive studies can yield rich
data that lead to important
recommendations.
5. Appoach collects a large amount of
data for detailed analysis.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. The results from a
descriptive research can
not be used to discover a
definitive answer or to
disprove a hypothesis.
2. Because descriptive
designs often utilize
observational methods [as
opposed to quantitative
methods], the results
cannot be replicated.
3. The descriptive
function of research is
heavily dependent on
instrumentation for
measurement and
observation.
22. Experimental Design
Definition and Purpose
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain
control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment.
In doing this, the researcher attempts to
determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often
used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in
a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect),
and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic
experimental design specifies an experimental
group and a control group. The independent variable is administered
to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both
groups are measured on the same
dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used
more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True
experiments must have control,
randomization, and manipulation.
23. ADVANTAGES:-
1. Experimental research allows
the researcher to control the
situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the
question, “what causes
something to occur?”
2. Permits the researcher to
identify cause and effect
relationships between variables
and to distinguish placebo
effects from treatment effects.
3. Experimental research designs
support the ability to limit
alternative explanations and to
infer direct causal relationships
in the study.
4. Approach provides the highest
level of evidence for single
studies.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. The design is artificial, and
results may not generalize well
to the real world.
2. The artificial settings of
experiments may alter subject
behaviors or responses.
3. Experimental designs can be
costly if special equipment or
facilities are needed.
4. Some research problems
cannot be studied using an
experiment because of ethical or
technical reasons.
5. Difficult to apply ethnographic
and other qualitative methods to
experimental designed research
studies.
24. Exploratory Design
Definition and Purpose
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem
when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus
is on gaining insights and familiarity for later
investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminar
stage of investigation.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the
following possible insights:
Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.
Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of
tentative theories or hypotheses.
Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and
formulation of new research questions.
Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
25. ADVANTAGES
1. Design is a useful approach for
gaining background information on a
particular topic.
2. Exploratory research is flexible and
can address research questions of all
types (what, why, how).
3. Provides an opportunity to define
new terms and clarify existing
concepts.
4. Exploratory research is often used
to generate formal hypotheses and
develop more precise research
problems.
5. Exploratory studies help establish
research priorities.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. Exploratory research generally
utilizes small sample sizes and, thus,
findings are typically not generalizable
to the population at large.
2. The exploratory nature of the
research inhibits an ability to make
definitive conclusions about the
findings.
3. The research process underpinning
exploratory studies is flexible but
often unstructured, leading to only
tentative results that have limited
value in decision-making.
4. Design lacks rigorous standards
applied to methods of data gathering
and analysis because one of the areas
for exploration could be to determine
what method or
methodologies could best fit the
research problem.
26. Historical Design
Definition and Purpose
The purpose of a historical research design is to
collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the
past to establish facts that defend or refute your
hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a
variety of primary documentary evidence, such
as, logs, diaries, official records, reports,
archives, and non-textual information [maps,
pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The
limitation is that the sources must be both
authentic and valid.
27. ADVANTAGES:-
1. The historical research design
is unobtrusive; the act of
research does not affect the
results of the study.
2. The historical approach is well
suited for trend analysis.
3. Historical records can add
important contextual background
required to more fully
understand and interpret a
research problem.
4. There is no possibility of
researcher-subject interaction
that could affect the findings.
5. Historical sources can be used
over and over to study different
research problems or to
replicate a previous study.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. The ability to fulfill the aims of your
research are directly related to the amount
and quality of documentation available to
understand the research problem.
2. Since historical research relies on data
from the past, there is no way to manipulate
it to control for contemporary contexts.
3. Interpreting historical sources can be very
time consuming.
4. The sources of historical materials must
be archived consistentally to ensure access.
5. Original authors bring their own
perspectives and biases to the
interpretation of past events and these
biases are more difficult to ascertain in
historical resources.
6. Due to the lack of control over external
variables, historical research is very weak
with regard to the demands of internal
validity.
7. It rare that the entirety of historical
documentation needed to fully address a
research problem is available for
interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be
acknowledged.
28. Longitudinal Design
Definition and Purpose
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and
makes repeated observations. With longitudinal surveys, for
example, the same group of people is interviewed at
regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over
time and to relate them to variables that might explain why
the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs
describe patterns of change and help establish the direction
and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are
taken on each variable over two or more distinct time
periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. It is a type of observational study and is
sometimes referred to as a panel study.
29. ADVANTAGES
1. Longitudinal data allow the analysis
of duration of a particular
phenomenon.
2. Enables survey researchers to get
close to the kinds of causal
explanations usually attainable only
with experiments.
3. The design permits the
measurement of differences or change
in a variable from one period to
another [i.e., the description of
patterns of change over time].
4. Longitudinal studies facilitate the
prediction of future outcomes based
upon earlier factors.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. The data collection method may
change over time.
2. Maintaining the integrity of the
original sample can be difficult over an
extended period of time.
3. It can be difficult to show more
than one variable at a time.
4. This design often needs qualitative
research to explain fluctuations in the
data.
5. A longitudinal research design
assumes present trends will continue
unchanged.
6. It can take a long period of time to
gather results.
7. There is a need to have a large
sample size and accurate sampling to
reach representativness.
30. Observational Design
Definition and Purpose
This type of research design draws a conclusion by
comparing subjects against a control group, in cases
where the researcher has no control over the
experiment. There are two general types of
observational designs. In direct observations, people
know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive
measures involve any method for studying behavior
where individuals do not know they are being
observed. An observational study allows a useful
insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and
practical difficulties of setting up a large and
cumbersome research project.
31. ADVANTAGES:-
1. Observational studies are usually
flexible and do not necessarily need to
be structured around a hypothesis
about what you expect to observe
(data is emergent rather than pre-
existing).
2. The researcher is able to collect a
depth of information about a
particular behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among
multifaceted dimensions of group
interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to
real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for
discovering what variables may be
important before applying other
methods like experiments.
6. Observation researchd esigns
account for the complexity of group
behaviors.
LIMITATIONS:-
1. Reliability of data is low because
seeing behaviors occur over and over
again may be a time consuming task
and difficult to replicate.
2. In observational research, findings
may only reflect a unique sample
population and, thus, cannot be
generalized to other groups.
3. There can be problems with bias as
the researcher may only "see what
they want to see."
4. There is no possiblility to determine
"cause and effect" relationships since
nothing is manipulated.
5. Sources or subjects may not all be
equally credible.
6. Any group that is studied is altered
to some degree by the very presence
of the researcher, therefore, skewing
to some degree any data collected
(the Heisenburg
Uncertainty Principle).
32. Philosophical Design
Definition and Purpose
Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a
methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to
challenge
deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study.
This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical
traditions,
concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example,
the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments
about
fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research
problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:
Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is
real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on
what does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain
of what we know?
Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or
group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience,
and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a
matter of value?
33. ADVANTAGES
1. Can provide a basis for applying
ethical decision-making to practice.
2. Functions as a means of gaining
greater self-understanding and self-
knowledge about the purposes of
research.
3. Brings clarity to general guiding
practices and principles of an
individual or group.
4. Philosophy informs methodology.
5. Refine concepts and theories that
are invoked in relatively unreflective
modes of thought and discourse.
6. Beyond methodology, philosophy
also informs critical thinking about
epistemology and the structure of
reality (metaphysics).
7. Offers clarity and definition to the
practical and theoretical uses of
terms, concepts, and ideas.
LIMITATIONS
1. Limited application to specific
research problems [answering the "So
What?" question in social science
research].
2. Analysis can be abstract,
argumentative, and limited in its
practical application to real-life
issues.
3. While a philosophical analysis may
render problematic that which was
once simple or taken-for-granted, the
writing can be dense and subject to
unnecessary jargon,
overstatement, and/or excessive
quotation and documentation.
4. There are limitations in the use of
metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical
analysis.
5. There can be analytical difficulties
in moving from philosophy to advocacy
and between abstract thought and
application to the phenomenal world.
34. SEQUENTIAL RESEARCH
Definition and Purpose
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate,
staged approach [i.e. serially] where one stage will be completed,
followed by another, then another, and so on, with the aim that each
stage will build upon the previous one until enough data is gathered
over an interval of time to test your hypothesis. The sample size is
not predetermined. After each sample is analyzed, the researcher can
accept the null hypothesis, accept the alternative hypothesis, or
select another pool of subjects and conduct the study once again.
This means the researcher can obtain a limitless number of subjects
before finally making a decision whether to accept the null or
alternative hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a sequential
study generally utilizes sampling techniques to gather data and
applying statistical methods to analze the data.
Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize
samples of individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use
qualitative methods, such as interviews or observations, to gather
information from each sample.
.
35. ADVANTAGES
1. The researcher has a limitless
option when it comes to sample size
and the sampling schedule.
2. Due to the repetitive nature of this
research design, minor changes and
adjustments can be done during the
initial parts of the study to correct and
hone the research
method. Useful design for exploratory
studies.
3. There is very little effort on the
part of the researcher when
performing this technique. It is
generally not expensive, time
consuming, or workforce extensive.
4. Because the study is conducted
serially, the results of one sample are
known before the next sample is taken
and analyzed
LIMITATIONS:-
1. The sampling method is not
representative of the entire
population. The only possibility of
approaching representativeness is
when the researcher chooses to use a
very large sample size significant
enough to represent a significant
portion of the entire population. In
this case, moving on to study a second
or more sample can be
difficult.
2. Because the sampling technique is
not randomized, the design cannot be
used to create conclusions and
interpretations that pertain to an
entire population.
Generalizability from findings is
limited.
3. Difficult to account for and
interpret variation from one sample to
another over time, particularly when
using qualitative methods of data
collection.