Zurich Studies
in Archaeology
Vol. 9_2013
Tattoos and
Body Modifications
in Antiquity
Proceedings of the sessions at the EAA annual
meetings in The Hague and Oslo, 2010/11
edited by
Philippe Della Casa
Constanze Witt
Portrait of George Tihoti
Tihoti the tattooist came to Huahine from the Marquesas Islands
and his personal tattoos as well as his tattoo designs in his practice are traditional designs from the Marquesan archipelago. This
portrait shows him in his normal daily dress at that time, and with
a pareo wrapped around his waist.
Photo by Phillip Hofstetter, California State University, East Bay.
Impressum
Herausgeber
Universität Zürich
Abt. Ur- und Frühgeschichte
Karl-Schmid-Str. 4, CH 8006 Zürich
www.prehist.uzh.ch
Produktion
Chronos Verlag
Design & Layout
Elisabeth Hefti, Juliet Manning
Druck
Freiburger Graphische Betriebe fgb
© Texte: Autor/innen
© Bilder: Autor/innen
ISBN x-xxxx-xxxx-x
Table of Contents
5
Aspects of Embodiment – Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity
Philippe Della Casa & Constanze Witt
9
Matters of Identity: Body, Dress and Markers in Social Context
Philippe Della Casa
15
The Material Culture and Middle Stone Age Origins of Ancient Tattooing
Aaron Deter-Wolf
27
The Power to Cure: A Brief History of Therapeutic Tattooing
Lars Krutak
35
Flint, Bone, and Thorns: Using Ethnohistorical Data, Experimental Archaeology,
and Microscopy to Examine Ancient Tattooing in Eastern North America
Aaron Deter-Wolf & Tanya M. Peres
49
Body Modification at Paracas Necropolis, South Coast of Peru, ca. 2000 BP
Elsa Tomasto Cagigao, Ann Peters, Mellisa Lund & Alberto Ayarza
59
Interpreting the tattoos on a 700-year-old mummy from South America
Heather Gill-Frerking, Anna-Maria Begerock & Wilfried Rosendahl
67
Bronze Age Tattoos: Sympathetic Magic or Decoration?
Natalia. I. Shishlina, E. V. Belkevich & A. N. Usachuk
75
One More Culture with Ancient Tattoo Tradition in Southern Siberia:
Tattoos on a Mummy from the Oglakhty Burial Ground, 3rd-4th century AD
Svetlana V. Pankova
89
Tattoos from Mummies of the Pazyryk Culture
Karina Iwe
97
The Tattoo System in the Ancient Iranian World
Sergey A. Yatsenko
103
Intentional Cranial Deformation: Bioarchaeological Recognition of Social Identity
in Iron Age Sargat Culture
Svetlana Sharapova
115
Roman Cosmetics Revisited: Facial Modification and Identity
Rhiannon Y Orizaga
3
Philippe Della Casa & Constanze Witt (eds) Tattoos and Body Modiications in Antiquity. Proceedings of the sessions at the EAA annual meetings in
The Hague and Oslo, 2010/11. Zurich Studies in Archaeology vol. 9, 2013, 97-101.
The Tattoo System in the Ancient Iranian World
Sergey A. Yatsenko
Russian State University for the Humanities, Faculty of the, History of Art, Miusskaya pl. 6, GSP-3, Moscow 125993, Russia,
sergey_yatsenko@mail.ru
A series of tattoos was discovered in remains from the Pazyryk culture. Their subjects are usually animals depicted in
dynamic poses. There are visible diferences in tattoo practices between social groups; for common people, the tattoo was normally on the hands or shoulder. Gender preferences are also visible in the types of torment scenes and
tormented animals depicted. The most popular igures depicted in the tattoos were monsters – a wild goat with an
eagle’s beak and a panther’s tail, and also a realistic wild ram. Another igure, a panther with a very long spiral tail,
was known in China as a monster of nomadic origin. There are also images of Chinese zoomorphic gods. On the
images of nomadic Iranian groups we see a probable tattoo on the cheeks only with two to three horizontal lines.
Keywords: Tattoo, Pazyryk Culture, Social Groups, Animal Images, Ritual Cosmetics, Tattooing Instruments
1. Introduction
About 2500 years ago Iranian-speaking people probably
founded the biggest Eurasian population group, settling a
vast territory from West China and South Siberia to Ukraine
and West Iran. However, their tattoos have not yet been
studied closely. Documented evidence for tattoos in written sources and depictions has been infrequent. The fear of
exposing complete or partial nakedness publicly might be
one of reasons. In authentic Iranian art there are practically
no depictions of nude igures. According to Greek authors it
was impossible for many Asian “barbarians” to bathe naked
outside of their homes (Herodot. I, 10). Evidently, the fact
that noble Persian ladies tried to cover their whole body to
protect it from sunrays (Diodor. XVII, 35, 4–5) was initially
connected not only with prestige of having white skin. In
the Middle Ages, compound zoomorphic images in Iranian
people’s tattoos disappeared under the inluence of Islam
(for example, the tattoos on Kurdish women were limited
to sun symbols or single dots; they were placed on face or
hand, beginning from pubescence or wedding: Vasilieva &
Haidari 1983, 31; Ismailov 2011, 136, 138).
Figure 1. Pazyryk Culture tattoos discovered before 2004.
1 Pazyryk, barrow 2, man;
2 Ak-Alakha 3, woman;
3 Verkh-Kaldjin 2, man (after Polosmak 2001).
2. Pazyryk culture tattoo studies
2.1 Topics
The series of six tattooed mummies belonging to the late
stage of Pazyryk culture (4th-3rd cent. BC) is highly interesting (Figs. 1; 2). To contradict V. I. Molodin’s opinion (Molodin,
Parzinger & Tsevendorj 2009, 16), I am not sure that the practice of tattooing was generally being used by all members
of this society. Unfortunately, not all of the skin surface of
the mummies has been preserved to an equal degree, and
some part of the depictions has remained unknown to us.
The tattoos of the three well-known mummies from barrows 2 and 5 in the Pazyryk necropolis were discovered only
recently in October 2004, after photographs were taken in the
97
Figure 2. Pazyryk necropolis tattoos discovered in October 2004.
1 Barrow 2, woman (a – shoulders; b – left wrist);
2 Barrow 2, man (right hand);
3 Barrow 5, woman (a – hands; b – arms);
4 Barrow 5, man (a – left shoulder; b – right hand; c – hands;
d – right arm; e – legs) (after Barkova & Pankova 2005).
Hermitage Museum using relected infrared light (Barkova &
Pankova 2005; Pankova, this volume) (Fig. 2). Although my
colleagues from St. Petersburg – Sergei Rudenko (Rudenko
1949), Felix Balonov (Balonov 1987), Marc Podolsky (Podolsky
2010) and Novosibirsk – Natalia Polosmak (Polosmak 2001,
228-237), Dmitry Cheremisin (Cheremisin 2008) and myself (Yatsenko 1996; 2006, 99-100) – have long been trying to
analyze the depicted subjects placed on diferent dead bodies and the symbolism of animal images, many things have
yet to be cleared up.
The subjects of tattoos are generally animals, with only
a few exceptions (a line of dots along the spine on the man’s
body from Pazyryk, barrow 2, two-petal and three-petal
lowers, crosses on some ingers in Ak-Alakha and in Pazyryk barrow 5. In tattoos of the mountain tribes of Daghestan
in the NE Caucasus – ancient neighbours of the Iranians –
such lines of dots meant “the star road or bridge to the Other
World” (Ismailov 2011, 107-108, 114). The animals are usually
depicted in dynamic poses (while running, stalking to the
victim, looking back, or in an S-shaped pose, which is sometimes considered either to be the pose of agony [Cheremisin
2008, 7] or a purely compositional device). Hoofed animals
are generally depicted in an unnatural pose, whereas predators are normally depicted in more naturual-looking poses.
2.2 Social and gender speciicity
Diferences in tattoo practices can be noted among the
three main social groups – the high aristocracy (Pazyryk),
nobles of lower ranks (Ak-Alakha 3), and the common people
(Verkh-Kaldjin 2). On the bodies of less important person98
ages, tattoos are found on both hands or on the shoulder
(which was not covered by clothes in summer; Polosmak
1997, 25-26). On aristocrats’ bodies the tattoos additionally
cover areas which were not usually exposed (though they are
always absent from the surface of the thighs). Marc Podolsky
explains this phenomenon as participation in ritual dancing
(Podolsky 2010, 146); I consider the depictions to be more
probably devoted to some gods. Among common people,
tattoos only depict a single igure – an imaginary hoofed
animal. In Podolsky’s recent book on the Scytho-Siberian
animal style, the dominance of a single image of a wild animal in a dynamic pose is thought to result from the military
group mentality being formed at that time. The military was
partly independent from clan morality and probably connected ideal warrior behavior with animal ierceness and
physical prowess (Podolsky 2010, 166-168).
In the tattoos of nobles, we see intricate and probably
interconnected compositions; but scenes of torment in depictions for high rank aristocracy never present realistic
devouring of a victim’s body. Aristocrats, like the common
people, sported a depiction of the monster in the upper part
of their right shoulder, but the upper part of their left shoulder was additionally decorated with a igure of a tiger or a
wild ram. A cock ready for the battle was depicted on the
foreinger (Figs. 2.2, 4.3). The lone cock tattoo was a charac-
Figure 3. The most
popular images in
tattoos of the Pazyryk
Culture.
1 Wild goat with an
eagle beak and with a
tail of panther.
2 A realistic wild ram
(after Rudenko 1960;
Polosmak 2001).
Figure 4. Images of Pazyryk Culture tattoos, connected with China.
1 Panther with a very long spiral tail (‘Zhu bufalo’);
2 Winged tiger (‘Juntsi god’);
3 Tiger with deer horns, the master of mountain forests (after Rudenko
1960; Polosmak 2001).
Figure 5. Tattoo on cheeks (1-4) and probable ritual cosmetics (5-6).
1 “Deer stones” in Mongolia, 10th-9th cent. BC (after Turbat et al. 2011)
2 Detail of the gala sword from Philippovka, barrow 4, South
Ural region, the 4th cent. BC (courtesy I. V. Rukavishnikova).
3 Sarmatian horse harness form Balakleya, 2nd-1st cent. BC
(after Yatsenko 2000).
4 Temple pendant with Scythian goddess image from Tolstaya/
Tovsta Mogila barrow, the 4th cent. BC (after Mozolevsky 1979).
5 Philippovka, barrow 1, South Ural region, gold plate of a wooden
bowl, 4th cent. BC (Pshenichnyuk 1989),
6 Sogdian terracotta of the 2nd-3rd cent. AD from Samarkand/
Afrasiab (after Meshkeris 1989).
teristic of the mountain tribes of Daghestan (Ismailov 2011,
49-50). A group of three to four wild goats or rams marching
upwards along the lower part of the leg was a characteristic
tattoo subject for men-aristocrats in Pazyryk.
Gender preferences can be seen in the types of torment
scenes and species of tormented animals depicted in tattoos. In female tattoos, predators torment an animal native
to the forested Altai Mountains – such as a deer, an elk or
a wild ram – whereas in men’s tattoos victims are usually
animals originating from the Steppe zone – such as a saiga
antelope or a horse. This might be connected to the diferent
origins of male and female segments of the “Pazyryk society”.
According to anthropological data, the men were connected with the Saka-Tigrahauda groups of the Lower
Syrdarya Basin, SW Kazakhstan near the Aral Sea in the
desert-steppe zone; most of the women, however, were
similar to the “Scythoid groups” of Western Mongolia in the
mountain steppe-forest zone (Chekisheva 2012, 139, 169).
There may have existed common elements in tattoo depictions of married couples buried in a shared grave; this would
explain the image of a wild ram tattooed on both the male
and female buried together in barrow 2 of Pazyryk, as well
as the dual depictions of a tiger, a gryphon and a rooster on
the couple from barrow 5. Depictions on legs and heraldic
compositions are absent from female bodies, according to
moral norms.
2.3 Commonly depicted igures and their origins
The most popular tattooed igure was a monster – a wild
goat with an eagle’s beak, a panther’s tail and a row of
griin heads along the edges of the horns (Fig. 3.1). It is
always depicted in the upper line, on the right shoulder; even
being included in compositions it always looks isolated,
forming a kind of “medallion”. In the most intricate composition on the man’s body from barrow 2 in Pazyryk, this
monster is depicted twice on each shoulder. Unfortunately,
there is nothing we know with certainty about this clearly
important mythological character. Another popular image
was a realistic-looking wild ram (Fig. 3.2). Its lone igure is
placed counter to the above-mentioned monster in depictions on the bodies of the married couple from barrow 2; in
Ak-Alakha it is being tormented. The wild goat tattoo on the
shoulder is typical of the mountain tribes of Daghestan, as
is the tattoo of a large ish on the right shin (Fig. 1) (Ismailov
2011, 45, 53).
One of the creatures depicted in tattoos, the so-called
‘Zhu bufalo’ (Fig. 4.1), is a spiral-tailed panther. It was known
to the Chinese of the “northern barbarians’ lands” (Shan Hai
Jing, Classic of mountains and seas, 3.4a) and probably had
a nomadic origin (Yatsenko 1996, 155-156). On Pazyryk territory it is also seen in petroglyphs (Kubarev 1998, pl. III, 2). In
Pazyryk barrows 2 and 5, the Zhu bufalo was found only on
males. It is depicted to be either walking slowly or tormenting
a horse or wild ram. This igure is found in all groups of
images on the male’s body from barrow 2.
We also see a clear inluence of the images of early
Chinese zoomorphic gods, notably the winged tiger ‘Juntsi’,
one of the 12 gods who drive out demons (Shan Hai Jing,
12.2) (Fig. 4.2). In Pazyryk tattoos he is shown, as in Chinese texts, attacking a hoofed animal from the sky. Another
Chinese image in Ak-Alakha tattoos – a tiger with antlers,
the master of mountain forests (Fig. 4.3) – was popular in
Zhou dynasty art. The appearance of this god is evidently
explained by the ancient Chinese idea that when the tiger
99
Figure 6. Instruments for colored tattooing and cosmetics from
Philippovka I, South Ural Region.
1-2 Barrow 15, grave 4;
3 Barrow 29, grave 4 (after Yablonsky 2011).
or Jetysu (Akishev 1983, 103); and the latest on a Sarmatian
horse harness form Balakleya, 2nd-1st cent. BC (Yatsenko
2000, igs. 1, 5) (Fig. 5.3).
lives more than 100 years, antlers grow on its head (Taiping
guangji, Extensive Records of the Taiping guangji, 426). One
more Chinese god is presented not in a tattoo but in a felt
carpet depiction from Pazyryk (Polosmak & Barkova 2005,
ig. 4.7). In every detail this character corresponds to the
description of the god ‘Luu’, the keeper of sacred Mount Kunlun; it is feeding with nephrite powder one of the red phoenixes with whom it keeps watch over the treasures of the Sky
Lord ‘Huang Ti’, (Shan Hai Jing, 2.3) (Yatsenko 1996, 154-155).
Both Chinese gods are shown attacking hoofed animals.
3. Tattoos on cheeks
In Scythia tattoos were made by women using pins on different body parts. According to the Greek philosopher Clearchus of Soli (Bioi IV, Fr. 8), the bodies of women from neighboring Thracian tribes under Scythian tribute were also
tattooed. People of Pazyryk culture used cauldron cinder
in the process of tattooing. Since bodies in depictions are
covered with clothes, we can see only facial tattoos. One
variant of facial pictures can be interpreted as a tattoo, as
it has deinitely been popular in many regions of the world
even until recently. The most ancient tattoos consisting of 2
or 3 lines on cheeks are known on so called “deer stones” in
Mongolia in the Late Bronze Age (Turbat et al. 2011, igs. 2-3)
(Fig. 5, 1). Scythian gods have a composition of 3 parallel vertical lines on each cheek. So, for peoples (epic heroes, noble
dead) we see not 3 but 2 lines. Goddesses had them only on
the left cheek (i.e. on the female side of the body). We see
the latter on the left temple pendant of the Scythian goddess
Argimpasa (Herod. IV, 59) from the Tolstaya/Tovsta Mogila
barrow (Mozolevsky 1979, ig. 117) (Fig. 5.4). The analogous
tattoo is known for men of Achaemenid-Scythian time, in
the 5th-4th cent. BC (Yatsenko 2006, 79) and appears on
many artifacts: the golden igurine of a horseman from
Peter the Great’s Siberian Collection, South-West Siberia,
which probably served as a ritual vessel handle (Schiltz 1984,
ig. 181); a gala sword from Philippovka, barrow 4 (Fig. 5.2);
the Sun god on the ring in Issyk barrow from Semirechye
100
4. Tattoos or ritual cosmetics?
In the majority of cases facial depictions of the personages
in the art of ancient Iranian-speaking nomads, unfortunately, cannot be referred to as tattoos nowadays. The fact
is that they are trustworthily identiied as evident traces
of ritual cosmetics on mummies and skeleton bones. For
instance, in Sogdian terracotta of the 2nd-3rd cent. AD from
Samarkand/Afrasiab we see a V-shaped décor on each cheek
(Yatsenko 2006, igs. l53, 10) (Fig. 5.6). However, in another
barrow belonging to the Pazyryk culture a hundred years
earlier (Bystrovka 2, barrow 2), the analogous drawing
was made with mineral paint of crimson color (Polosmak
1998, ig. 23). A spiral curve on each cheek presents another
example. In Philippovka, barrow 1 from the South Ural
region (4th cent. BC), we see the same décor in the depiction
of a mounted hunter aiming at a saiga antelope (Piotrovsky
& Kuzeev 2002, 84, No. 30a) (Fig. 5). Still we see a depiction
made with a yellow paint (a female mummy from grave 2
in Zagunluq, year 1985, Eastern Xinjiang, 9th-8th cent. BC)
(Li Xiaobin 1995, ig. 71). The analogous sign (turned in the
opposite direction) was painted with blue color 1300 years
later (the goddess called ‘Bactrian Athena’) in the wall painting from Dilberjin, in early medieval Tokharistan (Yatsenko
2006, igs. 7, 190).
It is important to note that geometrical facial depictions of this kind are always seen on dead bodies of common Iranians and absent from the noble class. It is possible
that nobles used tattoos in such situations, not just coloring. The situation of the group of European nomads known
as Sarmatians is also of interest. In depictions of their male
gods and epic heroes of the early period (4th-1st cent. BC) we
see “common Iranian” pictorial motifs (three parallel lines,
a spiral curve); the writings of Sextus Empiricus (Outlines
of Pyrrhonism, 3.202) about babies being tattooed probably
referred to boys. Facial coloring in women is known to date
back to the period beginning from the second half of the 2nd
cent. BC. However, women did not paint igures, but spots
on their cheeks and forehead; diferent shades of red were
usually applied and chalk was used in one case (Yatsenko
2006, 161). According to Pliny the Elder’s Natural History
(XXII. 2), Sarmatian women namely decorated each other’s
faces in this manner during the most important rituals; men
did it less regularly and, probably, colored a large part of their
bodies.
5. Instruments for female tattooing
Some complete sets of female colour tattooing instruments
and accessories for cosmetics were found in nomadic
barrows of the South Ural Steppe Region, on the border of
Russia and Kazakhstan (5th-4th cent. BC). There are well
known graves near Sara village and Tri Mara (barrow 2, grave
2) (Smirnov 1964). But the most interesting set was discovered in Philippovka I (barrow 15, grave 4) (Yablonsky 2011,
388-389) (Figs. 6.1-2). It included an iron knife of unusual
bent form, a bone needle, a stone palette for dyes, a bone
spoon for their mixing, a pestle (a fragment of ancient Beleminite shell), and a mirror. The specialists on tattooing in
this society were women only.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Program of Development
Strategy, Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow.
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