Zurich Studies in Archaeology Vol. 9_2013 Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity Proceedings of the sessions at the EAA annual meetings in The Hague and Oslo, 2010/11 edited by Philippe Della Casa Constanze Witt Portrait of George Tihoti Tihoti the tattooist came to Huahine from the Marquesas Islands and his personal tattoos as well as his tattoo designs in his practice are traditional designs from the Marquesan archipelago. This portrait shows him in his normal daily dress at that time, and with a pareo wrapped around his waist. Photo by Phillip Hofstetter, California State University, East Bay. Impressum Herausgeber Universität Zürich Abt. Ur- und Frühgeschichte Karl-Schmid-Str. 4, CH 8006 Zürich www.prehist.uzh.ch Produktion Chronos Verlag Design & Layout Elisabeth Hefti, Juliet Manning Druck Freiburger Graphische Betriebe fgb © Texte: Autor/innen © Bilder: Autor/innen ISBN x-xxxx-xxxx-x Table of Contents 5 Aspects of Embodiment – Tattoos and Body Modifications in Antiquity Philippe Della Casa & Constanze Witt 9 Matters of Identity: Body, Dress and Markers in Social Context Philippe Della Casa 15 The Material Culture and Middle Stone Age Origins of Ancient Tattooing Aaron Deter-Wolf 27 The Power to Cure: A Brief History of Therapeutic Tattooing Lars Krutak 35 Flint, Bone, and Thorns: Using Ethnohistorical Data, Experimental Archaeology, and Microscopy to Examine Ancient Tattooing in Eastern North America Aaron Deter-Wolf & Tanya M. Peres 49 Body Modification at Paracas Necropolis, South Coast of Peru, ca. 2000 BP Elsa Tomasto Cagigao, Ann Peters, Mellisa Lund & Alberto Ayarza 59 Interpreting the tattoos on a 700-year-old mummy from South America Heather Gill-Frerking, Anna-Maria Begerock & Wilfried Rosendahl 67 Bronze Age Tattoos: Sympathetic Magic or Decoration? Natalia. I. Shishlina, E. V. Belkevich & A. N. Usachuk 75 One More Culture with Ancient Tattoo Tradition in Southern Siberia: Tattoos on a Mummy from the Oglakhty Burial Ground, 3rd-4th century AD Svetlana V. Pankova 89 Tattoos from Mummies of the Pazyryk Culture Karina Iwe 97 The Tattoo System in the Ancient Iranian World Sergey A. Yatsenko 103 Intentional Cranial Deformation: Bioarchaeological Recognition of Social Identity in Iron Age Sargat Culture Svetlana Sharapova 115 Roman Cosmetics Revisited: Facial Modification and Identity Rhiannon Y Orizaga 3 Philippe Della Casa & Constanze Witt (eds) Tattoos and Body Modiications in Antiquity. Proceedings of the sessions at the EAA annual meetings in The Hague and Oslo, 2010/11. Zurich Studies in Archaeology vol. 9, 2013, 67-74. personalized author's copy! Bronze Age Tattoos: Sympathetic Magic or Decoration? Natalia I. Shishlina1 , E. V. Belkevich1 & A. N. Usachuk2 1 2 State Historical museum, Red square, 1, 109012 Moscow, Russia, nshishlina@mail.ru (corresponding author) Donetsk regional museum, ul. Cheluskintsev, 189a, 83048 Donetsk, Ukraine This paper is devoted to analyses of Bronze Age tattoos identified on the skeletons from the Catacomb culture Eurasian Steppe graves dating back to 2600 cal.BC. In Temrta III a schematic drawing of a snake and some lines made on the skin over the fractured bone were transferred to the leg bone of the dead person. This tradition is characterized by a primitive technique, use of sharp items, and red and black pigments. The tattoo was placed on the parts of the body either covered by the clothes or left uncovered. They performed a social role and were used in course of medical treatment as a part of sympathetic magic. Keywords: Bronze Age, Eurasian Steppes, Catacomb Cultures, Tattoos, Sympathetic Magic 1. Introduction Decoration of the body is a part of human culture. Hairstyles, beards, garments, pendants, beads and bracelets have long used to emphasize a special status of a person, their belonging to a certain social or age group, or simply to make them stand out from the crowd. Tattoos are among such decorative body modiications; this tradition has been widely spread in various cultures and subcultures and among diferent populations and is still in use (Volkova 198, 113-116; Bogoras 1991, 187-189; Grinev 1991, 45; Samoylov 1990, 102-103; Molodin 2000, 118; Polosmak 2000, 84; Klein 2010, 207, 219; Tsimidanov 2010, 19). Today tattoos are a special form of body art. This paper describes tattoos dating back to the Bronze Age of the Caspian Sea maritime steppes and the Don Region, and attempts to address the following issues: - How was the tattoo placed on the body? - What was the part of the body preferred for tattooing? - What designs were selected for tattooing and what information did they contain? - What was the social role played by tattoos? - Were tattoos considered to be a method of treating diseases in Bronze Age medicine? - Who performed tattoos and who wore tattoos? 2. Cultural context Altai Pazyryk burial grounds dating back to the Early Iron Age are famous for their tattoos (Rudenko 1953; Polosmak 2001). Well-preserved mummiied remains of males and females found in the Pazyryk and Ukok burial grounds are covered with tattoos of various forms and designs. Scholars believe that these tattoos present decoded information easily understood by the people of this culture that existed in the middle of the irst millennium BC and disappeared a long time ago, and contain diferent myths and stories (Polosmak 2001). Some fragments of the tattoos made by the Tashtyk population that lived even earlier have also survived on mummiied bodies uncovered in the Oglakhtynsky bur- ial ground (Kyzlasov & Pankova 2004, igs. 3-5). The process of placing tattoos on the body during funeral rites is mentioned in the Bible (Leviticus 19, 28). In accordance with recent archaeological inds, the tradition of placing tattoos on the human body has even more ancient roots, and tattooing was irst practiced in the Bronze Age (Fig. 1). Temrta III Burial Ground, Kurgan 2, Grave 1 (N. I. Shishlina’s excavations of 2006). The Temrta III burial ground is located in the southwestern outskirts of the Village of Remontnoye, Rostov Oblast. When the mound was removed, an Early Catacomb grave was discovered in the southeastern section of the kurgan. Most likely, the grave was made in a catacomb, but the entrance pit was not preserved. The catacomb chamber was elongated and oval; it had a bend in its central part and was orientated to the northwest/southeast. The size of the pit was 2.5 × 0.8 m. The vertical walls were preserved at a height of 20 cm. The bottom was slightly tilted and had a small step ive meters high that was located in the northern part of the grave pit. A skeleton of an adult man of 45-55 years old was lying in a slightly contracted supine posture, with its skull orientated to the south–southeast (Fig. 2). The skull was dislocated because a high pillow stufed with plants and grass had been put under the head of the dead. When soft tissues disintegrated, the skull rolled 15 cm away to the south. The examination of the neck-bones showed that the head had not been cut of. All bones of the dead were heavily sprinkled with ochre. There was a lot of paint near the wrist of the left hand and the right shinbone. Skeletons of grass snakes (Natrix natrix) were lying on the left part of the chest parallel to the left side. They were orientated to the northwest/southeast, with their heads turned to the southeast. An ornamented nail-shaped pin made of bone was located under the right wrist of the dead. Most likely, the man found in the grave sufered from very acute arthrosis deformans of shoulder joints. His teeth 67 were almost completely worn down while remaining teeth were covered by dental plaque that resembled bubbles. The calf bone of the right leg had been broken; the broken bone did not knit immediately, which caused an inlammatory process and appearance of a large callus on the fracture site. A schematic drawing of a snake and some lines was visible on the shinbone and the calf bones of the right leg. Apparently, it had been made on the skin over the fractured bone (Fig. 3). After the disintegration of soft tissues, the drawing was transferred to the leg of the dead person who was lying horizontally. Primorsky I Burial Ground, Kurgan 1, Grave 10 (Prokofiev & Prokoieva 2009, 90-91). Primorsky I burial ground is located near the village of Primorsky, the Azov Sea, Rostov Oblast. Secondary Early Catacomb grave 10 was found in the western section of the kurgan and was made in a catacomb. The entrance pit was orientated to the west/east; the chamber was perpendicular to the entrance pit. A skeleton of a man of some 30-35 years old was lying on the right side in a contracted posture, with the skull orientated to the north (Fig. 4). On a spot of red ochre a skeleton of a child of 5-7 years was lying on its side in a contracted posture very 68 close to the man, with its skull orientated to the north. The position of the skulls indicates that, most likely, the heads of the dead were lying on high pillows and over time their skulls gradually rolled of. There was a skull and bone fragments of the left front leg of a two-year-old domesticated sheep in the southwestern corner. A brazier made of the upper part of an ornamented clay vessel was found in the northwestern corner. A pendant silver one-and-a-half- coil ring was lying under the child skull. The metacarpals and carpals of the right hand of the adult skeleton preserved irregular lines and dots of black color, i.e. remains of a tattoo (Fig. 4.2) (Prokoiev & Prokofieva 2009, 91-92). Based on the radiocarbon data of the Don River Early Catacomb Culture, both graves can be dated to 2600-2400 calBC (Shishlina 2008). 3. Tattoo-making procedures A tattoo is made by inserting pigment into the dermis layer of the skin. Usually, very thin needles are used for this purpose. Studies have shown that such needles were made of bone, wood, and metal, and sometimes sharpened bird feathers were used (Deter-Wolf, this volume). The tattoo was Figure 1. Location of Bronze Age sites with tattoos. Figure 2. Temrta III Burial Ground, Kurgan 2, Grave 1. 1 Plan of the grave 2 Bone pin made manually; deep or small cuts were made on the skin or pricks were made with a needle. It is quite possible that in the steppe environment, in addition to the needle, special bone tools, called kalamy, were used to place a tattoo design in the dermis layer (Fig. 5.1). Experiments have shown that such kalamy can be used to place designs on the skin with liquid and solid ochre solutions (Usachuk 2009, 172). One of the inds in catacomb burials in the Krasnoznamenka burial ground in the Crimea (Kurgan 1, Grave 9) is a tool made of a hollow bone with two holes and traces of ochre left on the interior walls, looking like a capillary pen (Koltukhov et al. 1994, 9; Usachuk 2009, 74), which might as well have been used in making tattoos. The second necessary technical component is pigment. Samples of bones and soil from Grave 1, Kurgan 2, Temrta III Burial Ground, were examined by A. I. Kosolapov and S. V. Khavrin from the Scientiic and Technical Expertise Unit of the State Hermitage Museum. The research showed that signs on the leg bones had been made by coal or soot. As the muscle tissues and, subsequently, the skin decomposed, the sooty substance that had been used to make the tattoo was transferred to the bone. 69 Figure 3. Temrta III Burial Ground, Kurgan 2, Grave 1, tattoo. 1 General view 2 Drawing Indeed, soot is the main pigment used in placing the design of the tattoo on the skin. A dye of plant origin with a high content of potassium, composed of remains and ash of burned plants, has been identiied from Early Iron Age cultures (Polosmak 2001, 231). According to V. G. Bogoraz, the Chukchi, an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea Region of the Arctic Ocean, used a ine thread covered by soot or carbon dust that they passed under the skin using a needle (Bogoraz 1991, 187). It is assumed that red ochre could have been used as a pigment in the Bronze Age. For example. ochre was used as the pigment for tattoos in Peru 1000 years ago (Pabst et al. 2010). Ochre was quite common in the funeral rites of all steppe and North Caucasus cultures dating back to the Bronze Age. In some rare cases, original drawings made by the red pigment were preserved on skulls. For example, a brightly colored ornamental band with branched transversal shoots that looked like leaves was quite visible on the frontal, temporal and occipital bones of a child of ive years found in Novotitorovka Grave 140, Kurgan 1, Ostanny Burial Ground (Fig. 5.2). Fine ochre marks were also detected across phalangeal bones of the hands and feet (Gey 2000, 74). Such crossed lines were found on the skulls from Early Catacomb graves of the Tsagan-Usn burial ground in Kalmykia (Arapov 1988). During excavations of Kurgan 3, Ulan IV Burial Ground near the village of Remontnoye (N. I. Shishlina’s excavations of 2010), drawings of rhombs made above and under the eye sockets of the buried male found in Early Catacomb Grave 13 (Fig. 5.3) were indentiied as well. A group of Yamnaya graves 70 with ritual painting of skulls made with the use of ochre was uncovered in the Dnieper River Basin (Teslenko 1996, 28-30). One of the Boug River Yamnaya graves found in a kurgan site near the village of Popilnaya contained a skeleton with a skull covered by a rectangle, which was placed on the frontal and facial part of the skull. The lines of the rectangular were clearly visible and were, probably, traces of a tattoo or some other totem sign placed on the head (Nikitin 1981, 62). Drawings easily identiied on the bones in the two aforementioned cases appear to be remains of tattoos inserted into the dermis layer of the skin rather than simply drawings made on the skin. The drawings were transferred to the bone where the skin was particularly ine, i.e. on phalangeal bones of the ingers and skull bones (Zinkovsky & Petrenko 1987, 31). Such methods of tattoo-making, i.e. by hand-pricking the skin to insert the dye or cutting the skin with a needle or some other sharp tool and rubbing cuts with soot or some other pigments, was used in subsequent periods by many populations (Kannisto 1999). It is not known whether the drawing was placed on the skin by a stamp or by some other means (Polosmak 2001, 231). 4. Tattooed Parts of the Body As dead bodies are not preserved in steppe cultures of the Bronze Age, and tattoos identiied are still few in number, it can be noted only that the so-called drawings have been found on the parts of the body not covered by clothes, such as the skull, the hands, or on the parts of the body covered by clothes, as is the case with the tattoo placed on the Figure 4. Primorsky Burial Ground, Kurgan 1, Grave 10. 1 Plan of the grave 2 Drawing of the tattoo on the left hand of the man (according to Prokoiev & Prokoieva 2009) inside part of the broken leg of a man from Temrta III Burial Ground. Comparison of the tattooed parts of the dead bodies dating to the Bronze Age with famous Pazyryk tattoos shows that, in subsequent periods, the Altai elite preferred to decorate their bodies so that they could show of their tattoos on certain occasions. Reconstruction of garments shows that men wore clothes that left their arms and legs uncovered, while clothes worn by women allowed them to show their shoulders and arms (Molodin 2000; Polosmak 2001, 235). Of special interest is a comparison of tattoos placed on the legs. A fancy design covered the right shinbone of a man from the second Pazyryk Burial Ground; such a tattoo would have been visible if the man wore short trousers (Polosmak 2001, 235), meanwhile a man from Temrta III bore a tattoo placed on the inside part of the shin, which is unlikely to have been visible when the man walked, as trousers would have covered it. 5. Tattoo Designs Tattoos of the Bronze Age can be divided into two groups. The irst group includes abstract dots and crossing lines, and the second group includes sketchy drawings of the snake. In the Early Iron Age two thousand years later, tattoo designs became more varied and presented mythological and wild animals (Polosmak 2001, ig. 151; Barkova & Pankova 2005, igs. 1-14); abstract marks were also used (Kyzlasov & Pankova 2004, ig. 3), but their interpretation is not possible. 6. Social Role of Tattoos The social role of tattoos where this tradition persists is enormous. The number of identiied designs that were preserved on the Bronze Age skeletons by chance is so small that we can only guess that probably drawings and tattoos placed on the Bronze Age man body were used to indicate a social status, ailiation with a certain group, or some rites performed, such as initiation. So far we can only speculate about the role played by such tattoos in the Bronze Age. What we know for sure is that some clothes items worn by Bronze Age people were important elements of social life and special types of headwear, such as caps, headbands with silver or bronze temple rings (Shishlina 2005), belts with hanging decorations (Shishlina 2008), bracelets (Korenevsky 1990), pointed to their social status or indicated their position in society. We cannot ignore the fact that tattoos, scars and pigment painting of the body were important elements of human body ornamentation. 7. Sympathetic magic Sympathetic magic is likely to have been practiced in the steppe environment of the Bronze Age. The term was coined by J. G. Frazer and was irst used in his book The Golden Bough (1983). In accordance with this theory, certain objects can form supernatural links with each other. The man from Temrta III may have been a subject of sympathetic magic. As mentioned above, a schematic image of the snake was made on the inside part of his shin. Interestingly, the bones of two grass snakes were found lying on the man’s chest. In Bronze Age steppe cultures, the snake was used in the burial rite (Shishlina 1996; Korenevsky et al 2007, 59) and as a special rare jewelry piece (Shishlina 2005). A special type of jewelry, i.e. bronze cast pins, with snakes slithering along the stem (Markovin 1994, table 85, 3) was produced in the Caucasus. The tattoo in the form of a schematic image of the snake placed on the site of the man’s leg where a large callus had developed due to its fracture, which looks as though it may have caused pain when the man was walking, implies that the use of snakes in medicine was practiced in the Early Catacomb Age. Snake venom and snake skins were used by many population groups both in rites and in medical treatment (Frazer 1983), including cases of leg fracture (Kannisto 1999, 30) or other acute diseases. For example, the Nivkhs, an indigenous ethnic group inhabiting the northern part of Sakhalin Island and the region of the Amur River estuary in Russia’s Khabarovsk Krai, placed images of snakes on their medicinal ongons, i.e. wooden amulets, that they used to treat stomach-ache, headache and heartache (Ostrovsky 1997, 167-172). Women inserted a piece of snake skin into medicinal amulets (Ostrovsky 1997, 15). As recently as the irst half of the 19th century, Sakhalin Nivkhs from the Vyskvon tribe (a snake tribe, according to legend) erected a post with a relief image of the snake, and when they went hunting they irst brought food to the post asking for help to prevent diseases (Ostrovsky 1997, 154). The collection of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Science has a Nani exhibit (the Nani live in the Far East), which includes a cap made of the snake skin that has two embroidered images of anthropomorphic igures, four snakes, a toad and a rooster. The cap was used to treat headaches (Ostrovsky 1997, 141, note 88). In the Volga Region (Saratov Region, the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries) a snake skin was used to treat fever by being worn on the neck as a charm. Another treatment method was to catch a snake 71 Figure 5. 1 Zolotoy Burial Ground, Kurgan 3, Grave 5: bone kalamy – special devices to insert pigment into the skin (according to Usachuk 2009) 2 Ostanny Burial Ground, Kurgan 1, Grave 14: drawings on the child skull (according to Gey 2000) 3 Ulan IV Burial Ground, Kurgan 3, Grave 13: drawing on the skull of a male and make it slither over a belt or a strap. Afterward the snake was not killed but was set free, and the belt coule be worn as a treatment for fever (Dynin 1999, 69-70). In the same region, though, a snake axe or a snake stick that had been used to kill snakes was also used to treat pains in the back (Dynin 1999, 67-68). In Turkey if a woman was seriously ill, a snake coiled into a ball was simply put on the woman’s face and this remedy was supposed to ease her pain (Demidov 1997, ig. 2). Does the tradition of medical treatment with the use of snakes on the steppes date back to the Bronze Age? When an ancient healer placed a snake image on the site of the leg that caused pain, it was likely done to soothe the patient’s pain. 72 The Early Catacomb man whose remains were found in Temrta was not the irst person to be treated by tattoos. Much earlier, roughly between 3300 and 3200 calBC, Ötzi, also known as the Similaun Man, the man from Hauslabjoch and Frozen Fritz, underwent tattoo-based medical treatment when he was sufering from arthritis (Krutak, this volume). Fifty small parallel lines and crosses made with charcoalbased pigment were placed on his body (Spindler 2001). In Nubia in 350-550 AD, severe limb injuries were treated by tattoos (Arelagos 1969). Ob-Ugric people used to make a tagma, or a mark, on the fractured leg or arm (Kannisto 1999). Another interesting case relates to the Udegei people who lived in the Ussuriysk region and who cut out snakes on shaman igurines called ongons (dwelling-places of the spirit of a sacred being) to prevent them from breaking (Ostrovsky 1997, 141). Women of Dagestan wore bird, snake, and frog tattoos that were placed on ingers, calves and other body parts and were believed to ward of diseases (Ismailov 2011). Hence, the tradition of using tattoos as a cure survived among many population groups for centuries. 8. Who wore tattoos and who made tattoos? This question is still without an answer, at least, as far as the steppe Bronze Age is concerned. The artifacts gathered are still too few to conclude anything deinite about age or social groups. It appears that a skillful craftsman who was good at ornamenting bone hammer-headed pins made drawings that consisted of dots or crossed lines. Studies conducted have shown that ornamentation was placed on the pin by making lines with a ine metal blade at one stroke, afterwards the ornamentation was reined (Usachuk 2000; 2002). A craftsman could place a tattoo on the skin using a sharp point. It is also possible that tattoos were made by a healer, i.e. a person who practiced diferent types of treatment in the Bronze Age and who, when necessary, could do excisions of patient’s tissues. Trepanated skulls with traces of healing prove that there were rather skillful physicians among Catacomb populations (Mednikova 2001, 89-91). Later, when tattoo designs became numerous and a much larger area of the body was covered by tattoos, specialized tattoo artists appeared. Such artists were required to have a sophisticated taste and knowledge of many mythological stories. When scholars examined the drawings placed on the bodies of Pazyryk mummies buried in diferent burial grounds, such as the body of a male from the second Pazyryk Mound and the body of a female from Kurgan 1, Ak-Alach 3 Burial Ground (Polosmak 2001, 234), they came to the conclusion that the tattoos had been made by one person. 9. Conclusion New inds of tattoos in Rostov Oblast burial grounds help date this tradition, which was spread among steppe cultures, back to the Early Catacomb Culture, around 2600 BC. Methods of placing the tattoo on the body were primitive: pricks or incisions were made by a sharp item (a needle or a cutting point) and a pigment was inserted into the dermis layer of the skin. Supposedly, it was not only soot mixed with water but red ochre as well. Tattoo designs ranged from simple igures to elaborate compositions placed on the parts of the body either covered by the clothes or left uncovered. Tattoos must have performed a social role and so far they have been identiied only on Catacomb males. Most likely, they were used as one of the earlier medical procedures as a part of sympathetic magic. We believe that careful examination of skeleton remains during archaeological excavations and after completion of excavation will help detect tattoos on a larger number of skeletons. Studies of bone remains in Nubia have demonstrated that in some circumstances when tissues decay the drawing is transferred from the dermis layer to the bone (Armelagos 1969, igs. 4, 5, 6), in areas where ine layers of skin lay very close to the bone, such as the ingers, wrist, feet, skull, and shinbones (See Zinkovsky & Petrenko 1987, 31-32). Acknowledgements We appreciate the help provided by Yu. Yu. Piotrovsky, who organized expertise in the Scientiic and Technical Expertise Unit of the State Hermitage Museum; S. V. Khavrin and A. 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