Qualitative data collection involves several key steps and considerations. Researchers must identify participants and sites, gain access and permissions, define what types of data to collect such as through observations, interviews, or documents, develop appropriate data collection tools, and collect data in an ethical manner. There are various sampling strategies such as purposive sampling to select information-rich cases. Key informants can provide insider perspectives. Interviews and focus groups are common but time-intensive methods to directly collect words from people. Reflective journals and field notes also capture qualitative data over time from single or multiple observers.
This document discusses different techniques for collecting qualitative data. It begins by differentiating between data collection in quantitative and qualitative research. The main techniques discussed for collecting qualitative data are interviews, observation, visual data collection, and secondary data collection. Specific types of interviews such as structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews are explained. Guidelines for conducting interviews and observations are also provided.
The document discusses 8 types of qualitative research methods including basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, grounded theory research, historical studies, narrative research, and phenomenological research. It provides descriptions and examples of each method, focusing on the goals, data collection techniques, and key characteristics of basic qualitative studies, case study research, content analysis, ethnographic studies, and grounded theory research. The document is intended to inform readers about these common qualitative research approaches.
By the end of this presentation you should be able to:
Describe the justification of qualitative Sampling Techniques
Understand different types of Sampling Techniques
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It defines qualitative research as exploring issues to understand phenomena through unstructured sources like interviews rather than statistics. Some key characteristics of qualitative research are that it seeks to understand people's perspectives in natural settings, is value-bound, and aims for a holistic picture through discovery rather than testing hypotheses. Case studies are described as an in-depth analysis of a single case to understand its complexity. Triangulation is introduced as using multiple research strategies or data sources to confirm findings and reduce errors.
Data and data collection in qualitative researchRizky Amelia
This document discusses various qualitative research data collection methods including interviews, introspective methods, questionnaires, observations, documents, and production tasks. It provides details on structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews. Introspective methods examine thought processes using think-aloud protocols, diaries, and retrospection. Questionnaires can be closed-ended, open-ended, or mixed. Observations involve either participant or nonparticipant research. Documents include personal records, official communications, and popular culture materials. Production tasks examine participant-generated artifacts.
Qualitative and quantitative methods of researchJordan Cruz
The document compares and contrasts qualitative and quantitative research methods. It discusses that qualitative research aims to understand social interactions through smaller, non-randomly selected samples, while quantitative research seeks to test hypotheses and make predictions using larger, randomly selected samples and specific variables. It also outlines the different types of data collected, forms of analysis, roles of researchers, and final reporting structures between the two methods.
Sampling Methods in Qualitative and Quantitative ResearchSam Ladner
This document discusses different types of sampling methods used in qualitative and quantitative research. It outlines the different assumptions researchers make regarding sampling in qualitative versus quantitative studies. A variety of sampling techniques are described for different research contexts such as ethnographic fieldwork, interviews, and content analysis.
Methods of Data Collection in Quantitative Research (Biostatistik)AKak Long
DEFINITION : Quantitative research, is defined as a the systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.
Quantitative research gathers information from existing and potential customers using sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of numericals.
After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
Described as the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer research questions, test hypothesis and evaluate outcome.
Importance of data collection:
Helps us search for answers and resolutions
Facilitates and improve decision-making processes and the quality of the decisions made.
#Types of quantitative research.
. Survey research
The collection of data attained by asking individuals questions by either in person, on paper, by phone or online.
2. Correlational research
Measures two variables, understand assess the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.
3. Casual-comparative research
To find relationship between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
4. Experimental research
Researcher manipulates one variables, and control/randomizes the rest of the variables.
The document discusses the process of collecting qualitative data through various methods such as observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials. It provides details on purposeful sampling strategies, gaining access to research sites and participants, developing data collection forms like interview protocols, and ethical considerations in qualitative data collection. The key steps and advantages and disadvantages of different qualitative data collection methods are also outlined.
This document provides an overview of case study research. It defines case study research as a qualitative approach that uses various data sources to conduct an in-depth analysis of a case or cases. It explores the aims, definition, design, data collection, and analysis aspects of case study research. Examples of case studies are also provided. The document concludes with a group activity asking readers to consider how a case study approach could be applied to their own research areas and what units of analysis and design they may use.
By the end of this presentation you should be able to:
Describe different types of data collection techniques
Demonstrate dimensions , type of observations and how to prepare and conduct observation
Understand the practical communication skills for interviews to ask good questions , probe and follow up questions .
Able to prepare for interview
Understand the characteristics and uses of focus group discussions
Conduct focus group discussions
This document provides an overview of case study research. It defines case study as an in-depth examination of a phenomenon in its real-world context. The document differentiates between types of case studies such as explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive. It also discusses the relationship between theory and case studies, noting approaches can be theory-building, theory-testing, or theory-generating. The document shares examples of case study issues and methods of conducting case study research.
This document discusses various sampling strategies used in qualitative research including:
1) Purposeful sampling is used to select information-rich cases to answer research questions, such as extreme or typical cases.
2) Specific purposeful sampling strategies are described like maximum variation which selects cases from different conditions, and homogeneous groups which provides an in-depth look at a subgroup.
3) Other strategies discussed include snowball sampling which asks participants who else to interview, criterion sampling which uses predetermined criteria, and opportunistic sampling which makes on-the-spot decisions in the field.
This document discusses primary and secondary data sources. Secondary data is data gathered by someone else for a different purpose than the current project. It can be inexpensive and convenient to obtain, but may lack accuracy or relevance. Internal secondary data sources include accounting and sales information, while external sources include libraries, the internet, vendors and government records. The document also outlines various methods for collecting primary data, including observation, interviews, questionnaires, case studies and more. It provides details on structured versus unstructured interviews and questionnaires.
This document discusses various methods of data collection in educational research. It describes data collection as involving deciding when, who, how, and what data to collect. Common research instruments include questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing data, Likert scales, semantic differential scales, and opinionnaires. Questionnaires can be self-administered or mailed but have low response rates. Interviews are conducted in-person but are time-consuming. Observation directly watches participants. The document provides guidelines for developing and using various data collection instruments and methods.
This document discusses key aspects of defining a research problem, including identifying a researchable problem, sources of research problems, writing a problem statement, and developing research questions. It emphasizes that a well-defined research problem lays the foundation for a successful research project. The first step is to identify a compelling topic and formulate a problem statement that introduces the research area and leads to specific questions. A good research problem should be significant, clearly delineated, and have accessible information to draw conclusions. Narrowing the scope and defining key terms helps ensure the problem is manageable.
This document outlines Jamal Anwar Taha's seminar on qualitative research methods. It defines qualitative research as focusing on how people interpret and make sense of their experiences. The seminar discusses main types of qualitative research like case studies, grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography. It also covers qualitative data collection techniques such as interviews and observation, and methods of analysis including the funnel approach and triangulation to enhance validity. The strengths and challenges of qualitative research are presented, with a conclusion that it aims to understand meanings in specific contexts through rich data collection and analysis.
1. Qualitative data analysis involves coding texts to identify patterns, which turns qualitative data into quantitative codes. The purpose is to produce findings by analyzing data, interpreting patterns, and presenting conclusions.
2. Analyzing qualitative data is challenging due to the massive amounts of information collected. The process involves reducing the volume of data, identifying significant patterns, and developing a framework to communicate what the data reveals.
3. Rigorous analysis depends on gathering high-quality data, the credibility of the researcher, and a philosophical belief in qualitative inquiry. Common stages of analysis include familiarization, coding, identifying themes, re-coding, developing categories, exploring relationships, and reporting findings.
There are various methods for collecting primary and secondary data. Primary data collection methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, and schedules. Secondary data refers to previously collected data that is analyzed and available for use in other studies. Factors to consider when selecting a data collection method include the nature, scope, and objective of the research, available funds and time, and required precision.
This document discusses various methods of data collection in research. It describes 7 common methods: questionnaires, checklists, interviews, observation, records, experimental approaches, and survey approaches. For each method, it outlines the key aspects, such as how it is administered or structured, as well as advantages and disadvantages. It also discusses important considerations for developing research instruments and measuring variables in studies. The overall purpose is to provide guidance on selecting appropriate data collection techniques based on the research problem and design.
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Data collection - Statistical data are a numerical statement of aggregates. Data, generally, are obtained through properly organized statistical inquiries conducted by the investigators. Data can either be from primary or secondary sources.
Qualitative research aims to understand people's experiences and interpretations of the world. It provides rich, detailed descriptions through methods like interviews, observations, and written responses. The researcher immerses themselves in the topic to understand perspectives without assumptions. Main types include case studies, grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography. Data collection involves interactions, written responses, and observations. Analysis begins during data collection to guide further inquiry. The process moves from specific to general understanding through a funnel or inductive approach. Validity is increased through triangulation of multiple data sources, types, and collection methods. Strengths include understanding context, but it is time consuming and results may not generalize. Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative approaches at different stages of
Data collection methods in qualitative researchgdengurah
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang metode pengumpulan data dalam penelitian kualitatif, khususnya melalui penelitian lapangan. Terdapat beberapa poin penting yang dijelaskan, yaitu jenis-jenis desain penelitian kualitatif, tema-tema yang mendasari penelitian kualitatif, makna pengumpulan data dan penelitian lapangan, langkah-langkah penelitian lapangan, serta teknik sampling yang dapat digunakan se
Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ in important ways. Quantitative research uses statistical analysis of numeric data from standardized instruments, while qualitative research relies on descriptive analysis of text or image data collected from a small number of individuals. The two approaches also differ in how the research problem is identified, how literature is reviewed, how data is collected and analyzed, and how findings are reported. Common quantitative designs include experimental, correlational, and survey designs, while qualitative designs include grounded theory, ethnographic, narrative, and action research designs. The best approach depends on matching the research questions and goals.
This presentation discusses primary and secondary data collection methods. It begins by defining primary data as original data collected specifically for the research purpose, such as through surveys and interviews. Secondary data refers to data previously collected by others, such as published sources. Both data types are useful but have tradeoffs - primary data directly addresses the research question while secondary data is easier to obtain but may not be specific. The presentation provides examples of primary and secondary data collection techniques and their respective advantages and disadvantages.
The document outlines 8 steps for qualitative data analysis: 1) transcribe all data, 2) organize the data, 3) code the first set of field notes, 4) note personal reflections, 5) sort and sift through materials to identify patterns, themes, and relationships, 6) identify patterns and processes and test them in further data collection, 7) elaborate a small set of generalizations covering consistencies, 8) examine generalizations in relation to formal theories and constructs.
Data are numerical facts collected systematically for research purposes. Economists study phenomena and draw conclusions from collected data. There are two main sources of information: primary and secondary data. Primary data involves collecting original data directly from sources for a specific research purpose, such as through observation, interviews, questionnaires, or schedules. Secondary data refers to data that was originally collected by someone else for another purpose and has been published, such as government publications, journals, or reports.
This document provides an introduction to qualitative research methods in information sciences and technologies. It discusses the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, noting that while traditionally seen as incompatible, they are actually complementary. Qualitative methods are increasingly used in fields like information systems and human-computer interaction due to the complex social and human factors involved. The document outlines some key aspects of quantitative and qualitative research approaches.
This document outlines different methods for collecting experimental data in research. It discusses quantitative and qualitative data types, as well as primary and secondary sources of data. Three common data collection methods are described: questionnaires, interviews, and observation. Questionnaires can be structured or unstructured, closed or open-ended. Interviews may be conducted in-person, by telephone, in focus groups, or using depth or projective techniques. Both questionnaires and interviews are effective ways to gather information for descriptive or analytical research. The document emphasizes the importance of planning, designing, and critically examining different data collection methods in research.
This document discusses various methods for collecting research data, including primary and secondary sources. It describes different types of self-report methods like interviews, questionnaires, and scales. Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. Questionnaires contain different types of questions in various formats. Scales discussed include Likert scales, semantic differential scales, and visual analog scales. The document provides advantages and disadvantages of each method.
The document discusses key concepts in sampling, including:
- The target population is the group to which results will be generalized.
- Sampling units are the smallest elements that can be selected from the sampling frame.
- The sampling frame is the list from which potential respondents are drawn.
- Probability sampling methods like simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling aim to select a representative sample and allow estimates of sampling error. Non-probability methods do not involve random selection.
The document discusses the process of qualitative data analysis using the software tool Ethnograph V5.0. It describes the stages of qualitative data collection and analysis including coding, grouping, establishing relationships and theory generation. It then explains the various steps that can be taken using Ethnograph V5.0 to facilitate the analytic process, such as creating projects, entering data, coding data, conducting searches, creating memos and search filters using face sheets and identifier sheets. Pros and cons of using the software are also mentioned.
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data through methods like interviews and observations to understand meanings, concepts, definitions, and descriptions. It focuses on subjective experiences and meanings that people assign rather than counting or measuring. There are several types of qualitative research including basic interpretive studies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies, case studies, ethnographic studies, narrative analysis, critical qualitative research, and postmodern research. Each type uses different methods and focuses of analysis but all aim to provide an in-depth understanding of experiences, cultures, or phenomena through a subjective rather than objective lens.
Mba2216 business research week 5 data collection part 1 0713Stephen Ong
The document discusses qualitative research methods used in business research. It describes qualitative research as research that aims to provide interpretations of phenomena through techniques like interviews and observations, without relying on numerical measurement. Some common qualitative research methods discussed include focus groups, depth interviews, observation, and case studies. The document also compares qualitative and quantitative research and outlines different qualitative research orientations such as phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory.
Qualitative research methods - a data collector's field guideDatum Intel
This document provides an overview of a field guide for qualitative research methods. The field guide was created to train data collection teams in applied public health research projects. It covers the main qualitative research methods used in public health - participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. For each method, it provides practical guidance on logistics, ethics, sampling, data collection and management. The goal is to prepare data collectors to conduct qualitative research systematically and ethically in developing country field sites.
Chapter Session 2.5 data collection 27.3.18.pptetebarkhmichale
Introduction
In life, there are universal laws that govern everything we do. These laws are so perfect that if you were to align yourself with them, you could have so much prosperity that it would be coming out of your ears. This is because God created the universe in the image and likeness of him. It is failure to follow the universal laws that causes one to fail. The laws that were created consisted of the following: ·
Law of Gratitude: The Law of Gratitude states that you must show gratitude for what you have. By having gratitude, you speed your growth and success faster than you normally would. This is because if you appreciate the things you have, even if they are small things, you are open to receiving more.
Law of Attraction: The Law of Attraction states that if you focus your attention on something long enough you will get it. It all starts in the mind. You think of something and when you think of it, you manifest that in your life. This could be a mental picture of a check or actual cash, but you think about it with an image.
Law of Karma: the Law of Karma states that if you go out and do something bad, it will come back to you with something bad. If you do well for others, good things happen to you. The principle here is to know you can create good or bad through your actions. There will always be an effect no matter what.
Law of Love: the Law of Love states that love is more than emotion or feeling; it is energy. It has substance and can be felt. Love is also considered acceptance of oneself or others. This means that no matter what you do in life if you do not approach or leave the situation out of love, it won't work.
Law of Allowing: The Law of Allowing states that for us to get what we want, we must be receptive to it. We can't merely say to the Universe that we want something if we don't allow ourselves to receive it. This will defeat our purpose for wanting it in the first place.
Law of Vibration: the Law of Vibration states that if you wish on something and use your thoughts to visualize it, you are halfway there to get it. To complete the cycle you must use the Law of Vibration to feel part of what you want. Do this and you'll have anything you want in life.
For everything to function properly there has to be structure. Without structure, our world, or universe, would be in utter chaos. Successful people understand universal laws and apply them daily. They may not acknowledge that to you, but they do follow the laws. There is a higher power and this higher power controls the universe and what we get out of it. People who know this, but wish to direct their own lives, follow the reasons. Successful people don't sit around and say "I'll try," they say yes and act on it.
Chapter - 1
The Law of Attraction
The law of attraction is the most powerful force in the universe. If you work against it, it can only bring you pain and misery. Successful people know this but have kept it hidden from the lower class for centuries because th
The document discusses various data collection methods and sampling strategies for quantitative and qualitative research designs. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding sampling strategies, data collection methods, and how to identify appropriate methods for a given study. It then covers topics such as gaining access to participants, sampling strategies like random sampling and purposive sampling. Various data collection instruments like questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups, think aloud protocols, diaries and journals are also discussed in detail including their strengths and limitations. The document provides an in-depth overview of key considerations for data collection in research.
This document discusses methods for collecting qualitative data, including observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials. It describes the process of conducting observations at a research site, including selecting a site, easing into the site, determining what to observe and for how long, and recording descriptive and reflective field notes. The document also discusses interviews, noting the advantages of permitting detailed descriptions but the disadvantages of responses being filtered or deceptive. It outlines types of interviews and conducting them ethically. Finally, it addresses collecting and analyzing documents located at research sites.
Qualitative research employs various strategies for data collection and analysis that differ from quantitative methods. It focuses on understanding participants' perspectives in natural settings and emergent design. There are five key characteristics: natural setting, researcher as instrument, multiple sources, participants' meanings, and emergent design. Common strategies include narrative research, phenomenology, ethnography, case study and grounded theory. Data collection involves observations, interviews, documents and audiovisual materials. Analysis includes coding, identifying themes, and interpreting the overall meaning of the findings. Validity strategies help ensure accuracy and reliability. The qualitative write-up uses thick description, quotes, and narrative form.
This document discusses the process of collecting qualitative data. It explains that qualitative researchers identify participants and sites, determine what type of data to collect through methods like observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials. Researchers develop data collection forms like interview protocols and observational protocols to systematically record information. The document provides details on purposeful sampling strategies, gaining access to research sites, seeking ethical approval, and collecting and recording qualitative data.
This document discusses various methods for collecting data in research studies. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding different sampling strategies, data collection methods, and how to identify appropriate methods for a given study. It then provides an overview of key topics, including accessing participants ethically, quantitative and qualitative sampling, and different data collection instruments like questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups, and think-aloud protocols. For each method, it describes how to implement it and considerations for its appropriate use. The goal is to help researchers select data collection approaches suited to answering their research questions.
Class 6 research quality in qualitative methods rev may 2014tjcarter
This document provides an overview of key concepts in qualitative research methods, including assumptions, characteristics, and techniques for ensuring rigor. It discusses the researcher's role, data collection steps, interviewing, focus groups, coding, and strategies for establishing trustworthiness and credibility. Specific qualitative approaches covered include narrative inquiry, ethnography, case studies, phenomenology, and grounded theory. Examples are provided for each approach. The document concludes with guidance on coding qualitative data and establishing inter-rater reliability among coding teams.
This document provides an overview of various data collection methods for research studies. It discusses objectives, ethical considerations, sampling strategies for both quantitative and qualitative research, and different data collection instruments. These include questionnaires, interviews, observations, focus groups, think-aloud protocols, and diaries/journals. For each method, the document describes how to implement it and considerations for doing so effectively. It aims to help researchers determine the most appropriate data collection approach based on their research topic and design.
Qualitative research focuses on data that cannot be expressed numerically and aims to develop new concepts through description and interpretation. There are several types of qualitative research including ethnography, grounded theory, and interpretative phenomenological analysis. Data collection methods involve interviews, focus groups, observation, and reviewing documents. Qualitative analysis involves interpreting responses to uncover implied meanings and identify important themes through constant comparison of data. Constant comparison involves open coding, progressive focusing, and summarizing interpretations. Keeping organized records is also important for qualitative analysis.
This document provides an overview of case study methodology. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event within its real-life context. Case studies can be used to answer "how" and "why" questions, and are appropriate when behaviors cannot be manipulated or contexts are relevant. Information is gathered through various sources like interviews and documents. Steps involved in a case study include planning, developing instruments, collecting data, analyzing data, and disseminating findings. Potential sources of information and common elements of a case study are also outlined.
This document discusses qualitative research methods used in mass media research. It describes three approaches to social science research: positivism, interpretive, and critical. It then discusses five areas of difference between positivist and interpretive approaches. Finally, it summarizes various qualitative data collection methods like field observation, focus groups, intensive interviews, and content analysis.
- Case study is one of the most widely used qualitative research approaches and involves an in-depth study of a phenomenon within its real-world context.
- There is no set design for case studies as the design depends on the specific case and research problem being examined. Key elements of case study research include defining the case, collecting multiple types of data over an extended period of time, and representing both insider and outsider perspectives.
- Case studies aim to provide rich descriptions of phenomena and develop explanations for observations. Sound case studies demonstrate thorough data collection and use valid and reliable research methods.
This document discusses various methods for collecting primary data, including surveys, observations, interviews, and projective techniques. It provides details on each method and compares their advantages. Surveys gather information by asking questions, while observations involve watching behaviors. Interviews allow for in-depth discussion through open-ended questions. Projective techniques use indirect methods like word associations to understand unconscious motivations. Collecting high-quality primary data is important for research through methods tailored to each project's needs.
Qualitative research is a scientific method of investigation that seeks to understand and explain social phenomena through analysis of people's experiences. It involves collecting data in natural settings through methods like interviews, observations and focus groups. The data collected consists of words and images rather than numbers. Three common qualitative methods are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Qualitative research is characterized by its inductive approach, focus on meanings and experiences, flexible design, and interpretation of findings. It aims to gain an in-depth understanding of issues rather than generalizing to a population.
The field of Research Methodology pertains to the scientific study of the methods employed in research. It involves a systematic approach to resolving research problems through the logical adoption of various steps. Methodology serves to facilitate comprehension not only of the outcomes of scientific inquiry, but also of the process itself. The primary objective of Research Methodology is to describe and analyze research methods, elucidate their limitations and resources, and clarify their presuppositions and consequences. Additionally, it aims to relate their potentialities to the ambiguous realm at the forefront of knowledge.
This document discusses various methods for collecting data in research studies. It outlines the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Some key methods discussed include interviews, focus groups, observation, questionnaires, and secondary data collection. Interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. Focus groups involve a moderator guiding discussion among similar participants. Observation methods include controlled observation, naturalistic observation, and participant observation. Questionnaires can be self-administered or involve personal interviews. Secondary data is existing unpublished or published information from various sources. The document provides guidance on using these different techniques for collecting both primary and secondary data.
The document provides an introduction to key concepts in research methods. It defines research as a systematic process of investigation to establish facts and reach new conclusions. The main purposes of research are to learn and gather evidence. There are three main types of research: exploratory research which is unstructured, descriptive research which is structured, and explanatory research which uses hypotheses. Good research has clear definitions, acknowledges limitations, is planned, uses sufficient data, allows for generalization, and is systematic and logical. The scope of research includes areas like the environment, technology, innovation, competitors, markets, products, pricing, promotion, sales, customers, and organizations. Research can be pure/basic research aimed at knowledge, applied research aimed at solving problems, or
This document discusses research methodology and elements of research design. It covers topics like research design, population sampling, data collection methods, and types of research designs. Specifically, it provides details on phenomenological design, historical design, case study design, grounded theory design, and action research design. It also discusses research sampling, including target populations, accessible populations, and types of sampling like probability and non-probability sampling. Finally, it outlines common data collection methods such as individual interviews, group interviews, and surveys.
This document discusses qualitative research methods. It begins by defining qualitative research as collecting and analyzing non-numerical data like text, video, or audio to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. Qualitative research aims to gather in-depth insights through words and images rather than numbers. It typically uses an inductive approach to develop theories from field research. Common characteristics of qualitative research include studying meanings in real-world conditions, representing participants' views, examining contextual conditions, and using multiple data sources. The document also outlines ways to ensure trustworthiness and credibility in qualitative research findings.
Qualitative content analysis is defined as the subjective interpretation of text data through systematic classification and coding to identify themes and patterns. It can be used with both qualitative and quantitative data in either an inductive or deductive manner. Content analysis is a valid research method used to make inferences from data and provide new insights. It involves preparing the data, organizing it into categories, and reporting the results. The trustworthiness of content analysis relies on clearly linking the data to the results.
Critical thinking is an important skill for nurses that involves actively and skillfully analyzing, evaluating, and applying information. It includes cognitive skills like interpretation, analysis, and evaluation, as well as attitudes like inquisitiveness and open-mindedness. Critical thinking can be developed in nursing education through various active learning strategies like simulations, problem-based learning, case studies, and evidence-based learning. These strategies encourage students to engage deeply with material and practice higher-order thinking.
International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium 2010Susheewa Mulmuang
This document summarizes data collected by the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) on device-associated infections in intensive care units from 2003-2008. The INICC monitored over 155,000 patients in 173 ICUs across multiple countries. They found that rates of central line-associated bloodstream infections, ventilator-associated pneumonias, and catheter-associated urinary tract infections were significantly higher in INICC hospitals than in US hospitals. Resistance to various antibiotics was also substantially higher in INICC hospitals. Device-related infections were associated with crude excess mortalities ranging from 23.6-29.3%.
This document discusses approaches to infection control in countries with limited resources. It notes that healthcare-associated infections are much more common in developing countries compared to developed ones, and many are preventable. The key barriers to effective infection control in developing countries include lack of trained personnel, guidelines, and resources. The document recommends that countries prioritize appointing infection control teams, conducting basic surveillance to identify issues, and implementing low-cost preventative measures like hand hygiene, aseptic practices, and isolating infectious patients. Focusing on process monitoring through audits rather than expensive outcome surveillance is also advised. With minimal efforts, infection rates can be reduced to an "irreducible minimum" of around 5%.
The document summarizes healthcare-associated infection surveillance data from England in 2008-2009. It found dramatic decreases in several infections like MRSA and C. difficile compared to previous years. For example, there was a 35% drop in C. difficile infections. However, infections still occur so continued prevention efforts are needed. The data comes from mandatory reporting schemes and helps target control measures.
Healthcare-associated infections are a major problem that increase patient suffering and drive up costs. Proper hand hygiene is the most important practice for reducing infections, but many healthcare workers' hand hygiene compliance remains low. Hospitals need monitoring and accountability to ensure staff follow hand hygiene guidelines between patient contacts.
1. Imperforate anus is a birth defect where the rectum is not connected to the anus. It requires surgery to create an opening for stool passage.
2. Surgery for high or intermediate cases first creates a temporary colostomy. After months of growth, a more complex procedure connects the rectum to the new anus.
3. Necrotizing enterocolitis is a disease that affects premature infants, causing parts of the intestine to die. It requires stopping feeds, antibiotics, and may necessitate surgery to remove dead sections of bowel.
Gastroschisis is an abdominal wall defect where an infant's intestines protrude through a defect near the umbilical cord at birth. There is no protective sac covering the intestines. Infants born with gastroschisis require immediate medical intervention and surgery to return the intestines to the abdominal cavity. After surgery, infants are cared for in the neonatal intensive care unit while recovering, receiving IV fluids, antibiotics, and other treatments, with feedings beginning slowly through a nasogastric tube once bowel function resumes.
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Principles of Cleaning
Nonsurgical root canal treatment is a predictable method of retaining a tooth that otherwise would require extraction. Success of root canal treatment in a tooth with a vital pulp is higher than that of a tooth that is necrotic with periradicular pathosis. The difference is the persistent irritation of necrotic tissue remnants, and the inability to remove the microorganisms and their by-products. The most significant factors affecting this process are tooth anatomy and morphology, and the instruments and irrigants available for treatment. Instruments must contact and plane the canal walls to debride the canal.
Morphologic factors such as lateral and accessory canals, canal curvatures, canal wall irregularities, fins, cul-de-sacs, and isthmuses make total debridement virtually impossible. Therefore the goal of cleaning not total elimination of the irritants but it is to reduce the irritants.
Currently there are no reliable methods to assess cleaning. The presence of clean dentinal shavings, the color of the irrigant, and canal enlargement three file sizes beyond the first instrument to bind have been used to assess the adequacy; however, these do not correlate well with debridement. Obtaining glassy smooth walls is a preferred indicator. The properly prepared canals should feel smooth in all dimensions when the tip of a small file is pushed against the canal walls. This indicates that files have had contact and planed all accessible canal walls thereby maximizing debridement (recognizing that total debridement usually does not occur).
Principles of Shaping
The purpose of shaping is to
1) facilitate cleaning and
2) provide space for placing the obturating materials.
The main objective of shaping is to maintain or develop a continuously tapering funnel from the canal orifice to the apex. This decreases procedural errors when cleaning and enlarging apically. The degree of enlargement is often dictated by the method of obturation. For lateral compaction of gutta percha the canal should be enlarged sufficiently to permit placement of the spreader to within 1-2 millimeters of the corrected working length. There is a correlation between the depth of spreader penetration and the apical seal.5 For warm vertical compaction techniques the coronal enlargement must permit the placement of the pluggers to within 3 to 5 mm of the corrected working length.6
As dentin is removed from the canal walls the root is weakened.7 The degree of shaping is determined by the preoperative root dimension, the obturation technique, and the restorative treatment plan. Narrow thin roots such as the mandibular incisors cannot be enlarged to the same degree as more bulky roots such as the maxillary central incisors. Post placement is also a determining factor in the amount of coronal dentin removal.
Surgical Infection Powerpoint based on Scwartz Principlse of SurgeryMedicNerd
A presentation on surgical infections would encompass an in-depth examination of infections that occur post-surgery, highlighting their significance in clinical settings. It would cover the various types of surgical infections, such as superficial incisional infections, deep incisional infections, and organ/space infections, delving into their causes, including microbial contamination during surgery, patient-related factors, and procedural factors. The presentation would discuss diagnostic techniques, such as clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies, alongside treatment strategies that include antibiotic therapy, surgical intervention, and supportive care. Additionally, it would emphasize preventive measures, such as stringent aseptic techniques, preoperative skin antisepsis, and postoperative care protocols, to mitigate the incidence of these infections.
Safety should always come first when it comes to medical operations involving the use of a Huber needle. Disposable safety Huber needles are useful in this situation. A secure and effective method of accessing and delivering medication to a patient's port is provided by these single-use devices. But it might be difficult to choose the best option when there are so many on the market. We've put up the best advice to selecting the ideal disposable safety Huber needle so you can make an educated choice.
This Presentation provides information on hyperlipidemic drugs. It begins with an introduction to hyperlipidemia and its causes. It then discusses various drug classes for treating hyperlipidemia, including their mechanisms of action, effects on lipid levels, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses, adverse effects and interactions. The major drug classes discussed are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins), bile acid sequestrants, fibrates, and niacin. For each class, specific drugs are highlighted and their properties compared.
TEST BANK Physical Examination and Health Assessment 9th Edition by Carolyn J...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK Physical Examination and Health Assessment 9th Edition by Carolyn Jarvis, All Chapters 1 - 32 Full Complete.pdf
TEST BANK Physical Examination and Health Assessment 9th Edition by Carolyn Jarvis, All Chapters 1 - 32 Full Complete.pdf
Co-Chairs, Hussein Tawbi, MD, PhD, and Prof. Christian Blank, MD, PhD, discuss melanoma in this CME activity titled “Deploying the Immune GAMBIT Against Melanoma: Guidance on Advances and Medical Breakthroughs With ImmunoTherapy.” For the full presentation, downloadable Practice Aids, and complete CME information, and to apply for credit, please visit us at https://bit.ly/4edfNpE. CME credit will be available until July 5, 2025.
Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis and Simulation ...Oleg Kshivets
5YS of local advanced non-small cell LCP after combined radical procedures significantly depended on: tumor characteristics, LC cell dynamics, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors, biochemical factors, hemostasis system, anthropometric data, adjuvant treatment and procedure type. Optimal strategies for local advanced LCP are: 1) availability of very experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity radical procedures; 2) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 3) precise prediction; 4) AT for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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All the information you need to know about Hypothyroidism - Introduction,
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THE MANAGEMENT OF PENILE CANCER. PowerPointBright Chipili
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Human blood has a hydrogen ion concentration [H+ ] of 35 to 45 nmol/L and it is essential that its concentration is maintained within this narrow range.
Hydrogen ions are nothing but protons which can bind to proteins and alter their characteristics.
All the enzymes present in the body are proteins and an alteration in these enzyme systems can change the homeostatic mechanisms of the body.
Hence, a disturbance in acid-base balance can result in malfunction of the various organ systems.
The normal pH of blood is 7.35-7.45.
Acidosis is defined as a pH Less than 7.35.
Conversely, when the pH is more than 7.45, alkalosis is said to exist.
Acidosis and alkalosis are of two types each: respiratory and metabolic.
An increase in carbon dioxide (CO2 ) levels increases the plasma [H+ ] and decreases the pH (respiratory acidosis).
Similarly, a decrease in plasma carbon dioxide levels reduces the [H+ ] and increases the pH (respiratory alkalosis).
A decrease in [HC03 -] reduces the pH and is called metabolic acidosis.
Similarly, an increase in [HC03 -] increases the pH and produces metabolic alkalosis.
The pH is regulated in the human body mainly by two organs: the respiratory system and the renal system.
The arterial carbon dioxide levels are regulated by the respiratory system.
Any increase in carbon dioxide levels stimulates the respiratory centre in the medulla thus augmenting respiration, alveolar ventilation and elimination of extra CO2 levels.
A decrease in CO2 levels may reduce the stimulus to breathe and cause hypoventilation.
This response is limited by hypoxia as the hypoxic drive stimulates the patient to maintain respiration.
Respiratory response to changes in CO2 level occurs very fast.
The plasma bicarbonate levels are regulated by the kidneys.
Any decrease in [HC03 -] stimulates the kidney to retain and synthesise bicarbonate.
High [HC03 -] results in elimination of more bicarbonate in urine.
In general, the pulmonary response to a change in acid-base status is faster and occurs immediately.
However, renal regulation takes time, a few hours to days.
Kidneys filter and reabsorb all the bicarbonate in the urine.
When necessary, kidneys can also produce extra bicarbonate through the glutamine pathway.
When an acid-base disorder occurs, the initial disturbance that occurs is termed the primary disorder.
The body attempts to normaliZe the pH by certain compensatory mechanisms resulting in a secondary disorder, e.g. primary metabolic acidosis results in an increase in hydrogen ions and a consequent decrease in bicarbonate ions.
To compensate for this, the patient hyperventilates and reduces the arterial carbon dioxide levels, thus moving the pH back to normal ( compensatory respiratory alkalosis )
Introduction to Dental Implant for undergraduate studentShamsuddin Mahmud
Introduction to Dental Implant
Dr Shamsuddin Mahmud
Assistant Professor, Department of Prosthodontics
Nortth East Medical College (Dental Unit)
Definition of Dental Implant
A prosthetic device
made of alloplastic material(s)
implanted into the oral tissues beneath the mucosal and/or periosteal layer and
on or within the bone
to provide retention and support for a fixed or removable dental prosthesis.
Classification of Dental Implant
According to placement within the tissue
Blade/Plate form implant
According to Material Used
A) METALLIC IMPLANTS
Commercially pure Titanium
Cobalt chromium molybdenum
Titanium aluminum vanadium
Stainless steel
B) NON-METALLIC IMPLANT
Zirconium
Ceramic
Carbon
According to the ability of implant to stimulate bone formation
A) Bio active
Hydroxyapatite
Tri Calcium Phosphate
B) Bio inert
Metals
Parts of Dental Implant
Implant fixture
Implant mount
Cover screw
Gingival former/healing screw/healing abutment/permucosal extension
Impression post/impression transfer abutment
Implant analogue
Abutment
Fixation screw
Implant Fixture
Implant Mount
Connected to the fixture
Function: used to carry implant from its vital to the prepared osteotomy site either by hand or with a ratchet/ handpiece adaption
Cover Screw
component that is used to cover the implant connection during the submerged healing of the implant
Function: preserves the patency of the connection by preventing any soft tissue ingrowth in the connection
Gingival former/ Healing Abutment/ Healing screw
Screw/ abutment used to create the soft tissue emergence profile around the implant.
Time of placement:
During 1st surgery – One step surgery
After Osseointegration – Two step/stage surgery
Gingival former/ Healing Abutment/ Healing screw
Placed in the site 2-3 weeks for soft tissue healing
Function:
Create gingival emergence profile
Formation of biological width
Impression post/impression transfer abutment
component that is used to trans- fer the implant Hex position and orientation from the mouth to the working cast.
Types
Closed tray
Open tray
Implant analogue/
component which has a different body but its platform and connection are exactly similar to the implant. The analogue is used to replicate the implant platform and connection in the laboratory mode.
Abutment
Abutments
Advantages of Dental Implant Retained Prosthesis
Maintain bone height and width by preventing bone resorption
Maintain facial esthetics
Improve masticatory performance
Improve stability and retention of prosthesis
More esthetics
Increase survival times of prostheses
There is no need to alter adjacent teeth
Improve psychological health
Disadvantages of Dental Implant Retained Prosthesis
Very expensive.
Cannot be used in medically compromised patients who cannot undergo surgery.
Longer duration of treatment
Requires a lot of patient co-operation because of repeated recall visits are essential
INDICATION OF DENTAL IMPLANT
Dental implants can successfully restore all
Subcutaneous nodules in rheumatic diseases Ahmed Yehia Assistant Professor of internal Medicine, Immunology, rheumatology and allergy
How to use subcutaneous nodules as a clue for diagnosis by completing the puzzle
कायाकल्प क्लिनिक: पटना के अग्रणी सेक्सोलॉजिस्ट और स्किन केयर विशेषज्ञ
पटना का एक शानदार स्वास्थ्य सेवा प्रदाता, कायाकल्प क्लिनिक, आपके स्वास्थ्य और त्वचा की देखभाल में विशेषज्ञता प्रदान करता है। हमारे नवीनतम तकनीकी समाधानों और अनुभवी विशेषज्ञों के साथ, हम पुरुष और महिलाओं के स्वास्थ्य सम्बंधित मुद्दों को हल करते हैं। यहां पर हम प्रदान करते हैं:
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Discover the Best Sexologist in Patna: Expert Care at Kayakalp Clinic
Kayakalp Clinic - Best Sexologist in Patna
Kayakalp Clinic - Best Sexologist in Patna
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2. WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF QUALTATIVE DATA
CLLECTION?
1- Identify the participants and sites.
2- Gain access i.e. permission.
3- Define the type of data to collect.
4- Develop data collection forms i.e.
observational checklist.
5- Administer the process in an ethical
manner.
3. Populations and site
How to recruit participant and site?
- Random sampling Vs Purposive sampling
4. Random “Quantitative” Purposeful “Qualitative”
sampling sampling
Select people or sites who can best
Select representative individuals
help us understand our phenomenon
To generalize from sample to the
To develop a detailed understanding
population
To make “claims” about the population That might provide useful information.
That might help people learn about the
To build/test “theories” that explain the phenomenon.
population. That might give voice to silenced people.
5. Purposive Sampling
• Researchers intend to select individuals and sites
based upon the limitation in order to learn and
understand the central phenomenon.
6. Types of Purposive Sampling
o Maximal Variation Sampling
o Extreme Case Sampling
o Typical Sampling
o Theory or Concept Sampling
o Homogeneous Sampling
o Critical Sampling
o Opportunistic Sampling
o Snowball Sampling
o Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling
7. Maximal Variation Sampling:
A purposive sampling strategy in which
the researcher samples cases or
individuals that differ on some
characteristic or trait.
e.g. different age groups.
8. Extreme Case Sampling
Is a form of purposive sampling in which
the study an outlier case or one that
displays extreme characteristics.
-Choose extreme cases after knowing the
typical or average case-e.g., outstanding
successes, crisis events
9. Typical Sampling
A form of a purposive sampling in
which the researcher studies a
person or site that is “typical” to
those unfamiliar with the situation.
10. Theory or Concept Sampling
A purposive sampling strategy in which the
researcher samples individuals or sites
because they can help the researcher
generate or discover a theory or specific
concepts within the theory.
11. Homogeneous Sampling
The researcher purposefully samples
individuals or sites based on
membership in a subgroup that has
defining characteristics.
14. Snowball Sampling
A form of purposive sampling that
typically proceeds after a study
begins and occurs when the
researcher asks participants to
recommend other individuals to
study.
15. Confirming and Disconfirming
Sampling
A purposive strategy used during a
study to follow up on specific cases
to test or explore further specific
findings.
16. A key informant
A key informant is
• a person who has unique skills or professional
background related to the issue being studied.
• A person who is knowledgeable about the
project participants, or has access to other
information of interest to the evaluator.
• A person who has a way of communicating
that represents the essence of what the
participants say and do.
17. Advantages and disadvantages
of using key informants
• Advantages
•Information concerning causes, reasons, andbest
approaches from an "insider" point of view
•Advice/feedback increases credibility of study
•Pipeline to pivotal groups
•May have side benefit to solidify relationships
between evaluators, clients, participants, and
other stakeholders
18. Disadvantages
• Time required to select and get commitment
may be substantial
• Relationship between evaluator and informants
may influence type of data obtained
• Informants may interject own biases and
impressions
• May result in disagreements among individuals
leading to frustration/ conflicts
19. HOW TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE SITES?
Gaining access to the site or individual(s) in
qualitative inquiry involves obtaining
permission at different levels, such as:
The organisation
The site
The individuals
The campus institutional review boards
20. WHAT INFORMATION ARE INVOLVED
Observations, reflective journal, field note
Interviews , Tape or video record
Documents, newspaper, poem, diary
Photographs
Audiovisual materials, songs
21. Categories of Data Collection
Data collection strategy
Method
Attributes Challenges
Data Collected directly in words from people
Interviews: one-to-one Reveal information about the Interviews are a time-
question-and-answer sessions worldview of a single individual. consuming form of data
where the researcher may This is a flexible strategy that collection. To gather data
use a variety of techniques. can be massaged during data from one person requires
Interviews average 30-45 collection as needed to heighten preparation, the time of the
minutes per person results. interview, and the time of
transcription.
Focus groups: group More time effective than The group dynamics may
Interviews, using the same interviews but with slightly less interfere with complete or
variety of techniques and flexibility. The group process accurate data.
talking approximately the may encourage results from shy
same length of time as or hesitant people when the
interviews. group brings up topic with
which they agree.
22. Considerations in conducting in-depth
interviews and focus groups
Factors to consider in determining the setting
for interviews (both individual and group)
include the following:
• Select a setting that provides privacy for
participants.
• Select a location where there are no
distractions and it is easy to hear respondents
speak.
23. • Select a comfortable location.
• Select a nonthreatening environment.
• Select a location that is easily accessible
for respondents.
• Select a facility equipped for audio or
video recording.
24. • Stop telephone or visitor interruptions to
respondents interviewed in their office or
homes.
• Provide seating arrangements that encourage
involvement and interaction.
25. Advantages and disadvantages
of in-depth interviews
Advantages
•Usually yield richest data, details, new insights
•Permit face-to-face contact with respondents
•Provide opportunity to explore topics in depth
•Afford ability to experience the affective as well as
cognitive aspects of responses
•Allow interviewer to explain or help clarify questions,
increasing the likelihood of useful responses
•Allow interviewer to be flexible in administering
interview to particular individuals or circumstances
26. Disadvantages
• Expensive and time-consuming
• Need well-qualified, highly trained interviewers
• Interviewee may distort information through
recall error, selective perceptions, desire to
please interviewer
• Flexibility can result in inconsistencies across
interviews
• Volume of information too large; may be difficult
to transcribe and reduce data
27. Categories of Data Collection Method
Data collection strategy Attributes Challenges
Data Collected once or throughout a process of change
Reflective Journals: Subjective account of the event Similar to interviews,
Handwritten of verbal from the point of view of the reflective journals display
account of an event, or group writer, who may be the the worldview of single
of events, overtime. researcher or a subject of a individuals. They also
These often unveil how research. Can be collected once frequently require
writers subscribe meaning to or throughout a process of transcription.
their topics. change
Field notes: written May follow a prescribed format Somewhat more objective
explanations or data taken, or be open-ended. than reflective data
often by multiple observers at although still subject to the
a single event, capturing biases of the writer.
interactions of interest to the
larger topic under study.
28. Reflective Journal
• Reflective journal is a series of 'writings' in
response to life experiences and events that
may also involves reflections on what took
place, express emotions, understandings and
conclusions, lessons learned or action plans.
Often called a “Journal Entry”
30. Fieldnotes
Field notes refer to transcribed notes or the
written account derived from data
collected during observations and interviews.
31. Format
There is no one format for field notes. Three
possible formats are:
• Save content part of field notes and reflective
part of field notes in separate files.
• Use two columns. The column on the right
contains the content portion of field notes,
with reflective comments relating to particular
parts of the content part, written in the left
column.
32. • Use wide left margin. Body of file contains
content part, with the observer's comments
written in parentheses and indented under
related paragraphs.
35. Categories of Data Collection Method
Data collection strategy Attributes Challenges
Data Collected during the event(s) being studies
Anecdotal evidence and logs: May follow a prescribed format or be Somewhat more
data taken from people often open-ended. May be more objective objective than
outside the research team about the topic of study, since not reflective data
that report the facts of the constrained by the biases of the although still subject
interactions as understood by research team’s discussions of the to the biases of the
the writer. topic under study. writer.
Observations: stylized note Are often collected over a period of Accuracy may be
taking about predetermined time. Can be a collected by a variety constrained by the
portions of an event or group of people, thereby increasing the point of view of the
of events under study, possibility of reliable results. Accuracy person recording the
generally taken by more than may be helped by voice or video data.
one observer. Observations recording prior, with multiple people
often tally the number of taking part in analysis.
times an event takes place.
Student work: Can also be collected over time and May be hard to
with the intention of showing growth. interpret accurately.
36. • Becker (1958) described the role of
the participant observer as the
gatherer of data by participating in
the daily life of the group or
organisation.
37. Observational roles
A participant observer: is an observational
role adopted by researchers when they
take part in activities (the same as their
participants) in the setting they observe.
38. Observational roles
A nonparticipant observer: is an
researcher who visit a site and
records notes without becoming
involved in the activities of the
participants.
39. Observational roles
• A changing observational role: is one
where researchers adapt their role to
the situation.
40. Observations
The process of gathering open-ended,
firsthand information by observing
people and places at a research site.
41. Advantages :
opportunity to record information as it occurs in a
setting,
1- To study actual behavior and Permit evaluator to enter into and
understand situation/context.
2- Provide direct information about behavior of individuals and
groups
3- To study individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their ideas.
4. Provide good opportunities for identifying unanticipated
outcomes
5- Exist in natural, unstructured, and flexible setting
42. Disadvantages:
Disadvantages
1- Researcher will be limited to those sites and
situations where he/she can gain access.
2- Researcher may have difficulty develop
rapport with individuals there.
3- Culture shock may occur
4- Hawthorne effect
5-Expensive and time consuming
6- Need well-qualified, highly trained observers
7-Selective perception of observer may distort
data
44. Types of interviews
Can be described into two ways : base
upon participants and questions
1- one-on-one interviews: is a data-collection
process in which the researcher asks
questions to and records answers from only
one participant in the study at a time.
45. 2- focus group interviews: the process of
collecting data through interviews with a
group of people, typically four to six.
46. 3- telephone interviews: is the process
of gathering data using the telephone
and asking a small number of general
questions.
47. 4- electronic e-mail interviews: consist
of collecting open-ended data through
interviews with individuals using
computer and the internet to do so.
48. Type of interview
• Formal interview or structure
• Informal interview or unstructured interview
• Semi-structure interview
• In-depth interviews focus on the depth detail
of data.
49. Getting research participants
to talk
“Personal relations of trust are the basic ingredient for
a research project which intends the collection of
truthful information, data which retain the integrity
of the actor’s perspective and social context. Such
relations are essential for any project which seeks to
penetrate the public fronts of our everyday lives”.
(Johnson 1975: 121)
50. • Rapport are vital to gain trust.
• Gate keeper is helpful person.
51. Transcribe tape record
• Interviewer (or transcriber) listens to the
tapes and writes a verbatim account of
everything that was said.
• Transcription of the raw data includes word-
for-word quotations of the participant’s
responses as well as the interviewer’s
descriptions of participant’s characteristics,
enthusiasm, body language, and overall mood
during the interview.
52. • Notes from the interview can be used to
identify speakers or to recall comments that
are garbled or unclear on the tape.
53. Advantages and disadvantages of
the interview:
Advantages:
1- provide further information when you cannot directly observe
participants.
2- Allow participants to describe detailed information
Disadvantages :
1- Provides only information “filtered” through the views of the
interviewers.
2- interview data may be deceptive and provide the perspective the
interviewee wants the researcher to hear.
3- the presence of the researcher may affect how the interviewee
responds.
4- interviewee responses also may not be articulate, perceptive, or
clear.
54. Conducting interviews:
1- Identify the interviewees.
2- Determine the type of interview you will use.
3- During the interview, audiotape the questions
and responses.
4- Take brief notes during the interview.
5- Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting
the interview.
55. 6- Obtain the consent from the interviewee to
participate in the study.
7- Have a plan, but be flexible.
8- Use probes to obtain additional information.
9- Be courteous and professional when the
interview is over.
56. Documents
Consist of public and private records that
qualitative researchers obtain about a site
or participants in a study and they can
include newspapers, minutes of meeting,
personal journals, and letters.
57. Documents
Advantages:
1- Being in the language and words of the participants.
2- Ready for analysis without the necessary transcription that is
required observational or interview data.
Disadvantages:
1- Documents are some times difficult to locate and obtain.
2- Information may not be available to the public.
3- Information may be located in distant archives, requiring the
researcher to travel, which take time and can be expensive.
4- The documents may be incomplete, inauthentic, or inaccurate.
5- In personal documents such as diaries or letters, the handwriting may
be hard to read.
58. Two main types of document
• Public records are materials created and kept
for the purpose of "attesting to an event or
providing an accounting" (Lincoln and Guba,
1985)
• Personal documents are first-person accounts
of events and experiences. These "documents
of life" include diaries, portfolios,
photographs, artwork, schedules, scrapbooks,
poetry, letters to the paper, etc.
59. Collecting documents:
1- Identify the type of documents that can provide
useful information to answer your qualitative
research questions.
2- consider both public and private documents as
sources of information of your research.
3- once the documents are located, seek permission to
use them from the appropriate individuals in charge of
the materials.
60. 4- if you ask participants to keep a journal, provide
specific instructions about the procedure.
5- once you have permission to use documents,
examine them for accuracy, completeness, and
usefulness in answering the research questions in your
study.
6- record information from the documents.
61. Audiovisual materials
Consist of images or sounds that
researchers collect to help them
understand the central phenomenon
under study.
62. The advantages and disadvantages of
using visual materials
Advantages:
1- people easily relate to images because they
are so pervasive in our society.
2- Images provide an opportunity for the
participant to share directly their
perceptions of reality.
3- images such as videotapes and films, for
example, provide extensive data about real
life as people visualize it.
63. Disadvantages:
1- They are difficult to analyze because of the
rich information.
2- you as a researcher may influence the data
collected.
3- in selecting the photo album to examine or
requesting that a certain type of drawing be
sketched, you may impose your meaning of
the phenomenon on participants, rather than
obtain the participants’ views.
64. Steps of collecting
audiovisual :materials
1- determine what visual material can provide
information to answer research questions and how
that material might augment existing forms of data,
such as interviews and observations.
2- identify the visual materials available and
obtain permission to use it.
65. 3- check the accuracy and authenticity of
the visual materials if you do not record it
yourself.
4- collect the data and organize it.
66. How do you record data?
For observations and interviews,
qualitative researchers use specially
designed protocols.
67. Data recording protocols:
Are forms designed and used by qualitative
research to record information during
observations and interviews.
68. Interview protocol
Is a form designed by the researcher that
contains instructions for the process of
the interview, the questions to be asked,
and space to take notes of responses
from the interviewee.
69. Development and design of an
interview protocol
1- It contains a header to record essential
information about the interview, statements
about the purpose of the study a reminder that
participants need to sign the consent form, and
suggestion to make preliminary test of the
recording equipment.
70. 2- following this header are five brief open-
ended questions that allow participants
maximum flexibility for responding to the
questions.
3- the core questions, 2 through 4, address major
research in the study.
71. Observational protocol
Is a form designed by the researcher
before data collection that is used
for taking fieldnotes during an
observation
72. Further Reading
Denzin, N.K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fetterman, D.M. (1989). Ethnography: Step by Step. Applied Social Research Methods Series, Vol. 17. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Guba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y.S. (1981). Effective Evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Krueger, R.A. (1988). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
LeCompte, M.D., Millroy, W.L., and Preissle, J. (Eds.). (1992). The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lincoln, Y.S., and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Lofland, J., and Lofland, L.H. (1995). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis, 3rd
Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Merton, R.K., Fiske, M., and Kendall, P.L. (1990). The Focused Interview: A Manual of Problems and Procedures, 2nd
Ed. New York: The Free Press.
Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Morse, J.M. (Ed.). (1994). Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd Ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Schatzman, L., and Strauss, A.L. (1973). Field Research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Seidman, I.E. (1991). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and Social
Sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.
Editor's Notes
When the desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate and recruit for a study, purposive sampling may be the only option. For example, you are interested in studying cognitive processing speed of young adults who have suffered closed head brain injuries in automobile accidents. This would be a difficult population to find. Probability sampling strategies typically use a random or chance process, although there are important exceptions to this rule. Random sampling is a strategy for selecting study participants in which each and every person has an equal and independent chance of being selected. Haphazard sampling is a strategy that is almost guaranteed to introduce bias into your study. It should be avoided at all costs. A typical haphazard strategy uses a "man-on-the-street" technique to recruit those who wander by or selects a sampling frame that does not accurately reflect the population. Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but it does not come close to sampling all of a population. Researchers want to study the effectiveness of a diversion program for preventing further criminal activity among first-time juvenile offenders. Many cities across the nation have such programs but the researchers study the program in their city. The sample would generalize only to similar programs in similar cities. Convenience sampling is widely used in student research projects. Students contact professors that they know and ask if they can use their classes to recruit research subjects. Ref http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/res_methd/sampling/sampling_04.html
Simple random sampling is the most straightforward of the random sampling strategies. We use this strategy when we believe that the population is relatively homogeneous for the characteristic of interest. Systematic sampling yields a probability sample but it is not a random sampling strategy (it is one of our exceptions). Systematic sampling strategies take every nth person from the sampling frame. For example, you choose a random start page and take every 45th name in the directory until you have the desired sample size. Its major advantage is that it is much less cumbersome to use than the procedures outlined for simple random sampling. Stratified random sampling is used when we have subgroups in our population that are likely to differ substantially in their responses or behavior. This sampling technique treats the population as though it were two or more separate populations and then randomly samples within each. http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/res_methd/sampling/sampling_17.html Proportionate sampling is a variation of stratified random sampling. We use this technique when our subgroups vary dramatically in size in our population. For example, we are interested in risk taking among college students and suspect that risk taking might differ between smokers and nonsmokers. Given increasing societal pressures against smoking, there are many fewer smokers on campus than nonsmokers. Rather than take equal numbers of smokers and nonsmokers, we want each group represented in their proportions in the population. Proportionate sampling strategies begin by stratifying the population into relevant subgroups and then random sampling within each subgroup. The number of participants that we recruit from each subgroup is equal to their proportion in the population. Cluster sampling is useful when it would be impossible or impractical to identify every person in the sample. Suppose a college does not print a student directory. It would be most practical in this instance to sample students from classes. Rather than randomly sample 10% of students from each class, which would be a difficult task, randomly sampling every student in 10% of the classes would be easier. Our final strategy within the broader category of probability sampling is multistage sampling. This is our most sophisticated sampling strategy and it is often used in large epidemiological studies. To obtain a representative national sample, researchers may select zip codes at random from each state. Within these zip codes, streets are randomly selected. Within each street, addresses are randomly selected. While each zip code constitutes a cluster, which may not be as accurate as other probability sampling strategies, it still can be very accurate.
Purposeful sampling or Purposive sampling Purposive sampling targets a particular group of people. When the desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate and recruit for a study, purposive sampling may be the only option. For example, you are interested in studying cognitive processing speed of young adults who have suffered closed head brain injuries in automobile accidents. This would be a difficult population to find.
Maximum variation sampling , also known as heterogeneous sampling , is a purposive sampling technique used to capture a wide range of perspectives relating to the phenomenon that you are interested in studying; that is, maximum variation sampling is a search for variation in perspectives, ranging from those conditions that are view to be typical through to those that are more extreme in nature. By conditions, we mean the units (i.e. people, cases/organisations, events, pieces of data) that are of interest to the researcher. These units may exhibit a wide range of attributes, behaviours, experiences, incidents, qualities, situations, and so forth. Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling Sometimes extreme cases are of interest because they represent the purest or most clear cut instance of a phenomenon we are interested in. For example, if we were interested in studying management styles, it might be most interesting to study an organization that did exceptionally well and/or another that had high expectations but did exceptionally poorly. Typical Case Sampling Sometimes we are interested in cases simply because they are not unusual in any way. For example, years ago Howard Becker and some of his colleagues were interested in studying how medical students were socialized into the profession. They did their research at the University of Kansas Medical School – not a highly prestigious medical school such as Harvard or Johns Hopkins – exactly because there was nothing unusual about it and, for that reason, was probably somewhat typical of the medical school experience. Theory‐guided Sampling Researchers who are following a more deductive or theory‐testing approach would be interested in finding individuals or cases that embody theoretical constructs. As this could be considered a particular type of criterion sampling, it also illustrates the overlaps that can exist between these categories (e.g.,theory‐based sampling might also lead the researcher to look for particularly intense or extreme cases). Homogeneous sampling is a purposive sampling technique that aims to achieve a homogeneous sample; that is, a sample whose units (e.g. people, cases, etc.) share the same (or very similar) characteristics or traits (e.g. a group of people that are similar in terms of age, gender, background, occupation, etc.). In this respect, homogeneous sampling is the opposite of maximum variation sampling . A homogeneous sample is often chosen when the research question that is being address is specific to the characteristics of the particular group of interest, which is subsequently examined in detail. Critical case sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique that is particularly useful in exploratory qualitative research, research with limited resources , as well as research where a single case (or small number of cases) can be decisive in explaining the phenomenon of interest. It is this decisive aspect of critical case sampling that is arguably the most important. To know if a case is decisive, think about the following statements: "If it happens there, it will happen anywhere"; or "if it doesn’t happen there, it won’t happen anywhere"; and "If that group is having problems, then we can be sure all the groups are having problems" (Patton, 2002, p.237). Whilst such critical cases should not be used to make statistical generalisations , it can be argued that they can help in making logical generalisations . However, such logical generalisations should be made carefully. A convenience sample or opportunistic sampling is a matter of taking what you can get. It is an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample. This involves following new leads during field work, taking advantage of the unexpected flexibility. Snowball sampling . Some populations that we are interested in studying can be hard-to-reach and/or hidden . These include populations such as drug addicts, homeless people, individuals with AIDS/HIV, prostitutes, and so forth. Such populations can be hard-to-reach and/or hidden because they exhibit some kind of social stigma, illicit or illegal behaviours, or other traits that makes them atypical and/or socially marginalised. Snowball sampling is a non-probability based sampling technique that can be used to gain access to such populations . Confirming and disconfirming cases. Elaborating and deepening initial analysis like if you had already started some study, you are seeking further information or confirming some emerging issues which are not clear, seeking exceptions and testing variation. This is the process of selecting cases that either: serve as additional examples that lend further support, richness and depth to patterns emerging from data analysis (confirming cases) serve as examples that do not fit emergent patterns and allow the research team to evaluate rival explanations (disconfirming cases). This can help the research team understand and define the limitations of research findings. Disconfirming or Negative Case Sampling : With this strategy the researcher is looking to extend his or her analysis by looking for cases that will disconfirm it, both to test theory and simply because it is often from our failures that we learn the most. The general principle here is, “If you think your results are not generalizable or the existence of a particular kind of case will undermine all that you ‘know’ to be true about a phenomenon, then look for that kind of case.” Expert sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique that is used when your research needs to glean knowledge from individuals that have particular expertise . This expertise may be required during the exploratory phase of qualitative research, highlighting potential new areas of interest or opening doors to other participants. Alternately, the particular expertise that is being investigated may form the basis of your research, requiring a focus only on individuals with such specific expertise. Expert sampling is particularly useful where there is a lack of empirical evidence in an area and high levels of uncertainty, as well as situations where it may take a long period of time before the findings from research can be uncovered. Therefore, expert sampling is a cornerstone of a research design known as expert elicitation [see the article: Expert elicitation: Getting started coming soon ]. Total population sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique where you choose to examine the entire population (i.e. the total population ) that have a particular set of characteristics (e.g. specific experience, knowledge, skills, exposure to an event, etc.). In such cases, the entire population is often chosen because the size of the population that has the particular set of characteristics that you are interest in is very small. Therefore, if a small number of units (i.e. people, cases/organisations, etc.) were not included in the sample that is investigated, it may be felt that a significant piece of the puzzle was missing. Combination or mixed purposeful sampling This combines various sampling strategies to achieve the desired sample. This helps in triangulation, allows for flexibility, and meets multiple interests and needs. When selecting a sampling strategy it is necessary that it fits the purpose of the study, the resources available, the question being asked and the constraints being faced. This holds true for sampling strategy as well as sample size. Paradigmatic Case Sampling: A case is “paradigmatic” when it is considered the exemplar for a certain class. For example, if one wanted to study the management of professional sports teams, the paradigmatic case in hockey of a successful franchise would be the Montreal Canadiens; for baseball it would be the New York Yankees. Criterion Sampling: This involves searching for cases or individuals who meet a certain criterion, e.g., that they have a certain disease or have had a particular life experience. For example, a colleague of mine is doing research with men who have been clients of sex workers; this would be considered criterion sampling. Stakeholder Sampling: Particularly useful in the context of evaluation research and policy analysis, this strategy involves identifying who the major stakeholders are who are involved in designing, giving, receiving, or administering the programme or service being evaluated, and who might otherwise be affected by it. Ref http://www.sfu.ca/~palys/Purposive%20sampling.pdf http://dissertation.laerd.com/articles/purposive-sampling-an-overview.php#maximum http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampnon.php
Maximum variation sampling , also known as heterogeneous sampling , is a purposive sampling technique used to capture a wide range of perspectives relating to the phenomenon that you are interested in studying; that is, maximum variation sampling is a search for variation in perspectives, ranging from those conditions that are view to be typical through to those that are more extreme in nature. By conditions, we mean the units (i.e. people, cases/organisations, events, pieces of data) that are of interest to the researcher. These units may exhibit a wide range of attributes, behaviours, experiences, incidents, qualities, situations, and so forth.
Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling Sometimes extreme cases are of interest because they represent the purest or most clear cut instance of a phenomenon we are interested in. For example, if we were interested in studying management styles, it might be most interesting to study an organization that did exceptionally well and/or another that had high expectations but did exceptionally poorly.
Typical Case Sampling Sometimes we are interested in cases simply because they are not unusual in any way. For example, years ago Howard Becker and some of his colleagues were interested in studying how medical students were socialized into the profession. They did their research at the University of Kansas Medical School – not a highly prestigious medical school such as Harvard or Johns Hopkins – exactly because there was nothing unusual about it and, for that reason, was probably somewhat typical of the medical school experience.
Theory‐guided Sampling Researchers who are following a more deductive or theory‐testing approach would be interested in finding individuals or cases that embody theoretical constructs. As this could be considered a particular type of criterion sampling, it also illustrates the overlaps that can exist between these categories (e.g.,theory‐based sampling might also lead the researcher to look for particularly intense or extreme cases).
Homogeneous sampling is a purposive sampling technique that aims to achieve a homogeneous sample; that is, a sample whose units (e.g. people, cases, etc.) share the same (or very similar) characteristics or traits (e.g. a group of people that are similar in terms of age, gender, background, occupation, etc.). In this respect, homogeneous sampling is the opposite of maximum variation sampling . A homogeneous sample is often chosen when the research question that is being address is specific to the characteristics of the particular group of interest, which is subsequently examined in detail.
Critical case sampling is a type of purposive sampling technique that is particularly useful in exploratory qualitative research, research with limited resources , as well as research where a single case (or small number of cases) can be decisive in explaining the phenomenon of interest. It is this decisive aspect of critical case sampling that is arguably the most important. To know if a case is decisive, think about the following statements: "If it happens there, it will happen anywhere"; or "if it doesn’t happen there, it won’t happen anywhere"; and "If that group is having problems, then we can be sure all the groups are having problems" (Patton, 2002, p.237). Whilst such critical cases should not be used to make statistical generalisations , it can be argued that they can help in making logical generalisations . However, such logical generalisations should be made carefully.
This involves following new leads during field work, taking advantage of the unexpected flexibility.
Snowball sampling . Some populations that we are interested in studying can be hard-to-reach and/or hidden . These include populations such as drug addicts, homeless people, individuals with AIDS/HIV, prostitutes, and so forth. Such populations can be hard-to-reach and/or hidden because they exhibit some kind of social stigma, illicit or illegal behaviours, or other traits that makes them atypical and/or socially marginalised. Snowball sampling is a non-probability based sampling technique that can be used to gain access to such populations .
Confirming and disconfirming cases. Elaborating and deepening initial analysis like if you had already started some study, you are seeking further information or confirming some emerging issues which are not clear, seeking exceptions and testing variation. This is the process of selecting cases that either: serve as additional examples that lend further support, richness and depth to patterns emerging from data analysis (confirming cases) serve as examples that do not fit emergent patterns and allow the research team to evaluate rival explanations (disconfirming cases). This can help the research team understand and define the limitations of research findings.
Key informants can be surveyed or interviewed individually or through focus groups.
Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the evaluation. (some textbook allow 6-10 people http://iseibpsychology2012.wikispaces.com/Interview-Group+2-+Sarah,+Hae-In,+Sol-A ) Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. The focus group session is, indeed, an interview (Patton, 1990) not a discussion group, problem-solving session, or decision-making group. At the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in a group. The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviors, attitudes, language, etc. When to use focus groups . When conducting evaluations, focus groups are useful in answering the same type of questions as indepth interviews, except in a social context. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include identifying and defining problems in project implementation; identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations; assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings; 5 obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts; and generating new ideas. Assumption: “Human beings are storytellers, and that the researcher’s task is to explore the different stories being told.” - Narrative = the self constructs a story of identity in relation to other people - People’s minds are shaped to the patterns of daily life - Narratives = sometimes are constructed like real stories (opening, middle, ending) - To see how people impose a kind of order on their experiences so as to make sense of events in their lives - Representations of an individual’s life (facts + interpretations) - Help in understanding how individual lives relate to the historical/cultural context ü Can take different forms (ex. the life-story interview)
The Reflective Journal is a body of work reflecting the candidate’s exposure to the theory, process and practice of Visual Arts with special reference to the Expressive Forms studied. The Journal must show evidence of research undertaken inclusive of samples, photographs, interviews, critiques, descriptive and personal statements and reflections.
http://www.socqrl.niu.edu/myers/a.htm more
Field notes refer to transcribed notes or the written account derived from data collected during observations and interviews. There are many styles of field notes, but all field notes generally consist of two parts: descriptive in which the observer attempts to capture a word-picture of the setting, actions and conversations; and reflective in which the observer records Field notes should be written as soon as possible after the observation and/or interviews. The original data may be recorded in cryptic form, and unless they are fleshed out as soon as possible after the observation, important details may be forgotten and not appear in the field notes. Field notes are used to "broaden your range of vision" and produce data that will be of use in later stages of the system design.
Due to its covert nature it raises a number of issues which would arguably be almost impossible to justify in the current research situation (Humphrey 1970). The role as complete observer is that which entails the role of the researcher being limited to one of mere observation, and is a role which is rarely used.
Whilst participant-as-observer is the participant in those setting changes action as observer only.
Base on participant are:
Base on question In-depth interviews is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995).
In the first approach, the interviewer (or in some cases the transcriber) listens to the tapes and writes a verbatim account of everything that was said. Transcription of the raw data includes word-for-word quotations of the participant’s responses as well as the interviewer’s descriptions of participant’s characteristics, enthusiasm, body language, and overall mood during the interview. Notes from the interview can be used to identify speakers or to recall comments that are garbled or unclear on the tape.
The major advantages of this transcription method are its completeness and the opportunity it affords for the interviewer to remain attentive and focused during the interview. The major disadvantages are the amount of time and resources needed to produce complete transcriptions and the inhibitory impact tape recording has on some respondents. If this technique is selected, it is essential that the participants have been informed that their answers are being recorded, that they are assured confidentiality, and that their permission has been obtained. A second possible procedure for recording interviews draws less on the word-by-word record and more on the notes taken by the interviewer or assigned notetaker. This method is called "note expansion.” This approach is recommended when resources are scarce, when the results must be produced in a short period of time, and when the purpose of the interview is to get rapid feedback from members of the target population. The note expansion approach saves time and retains all the essential points of the discussion. In addition to the drawbacks pointed out above, a disadvantage is that the interviewer may be more selective or biased in what he or she writes.
The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are accessible and accurate. In the hypothetical project, documents can provide the evaluator with useful information about the culture of the institution and participants involved in the project, which in turn can assist in the development of evaluation questions. Information from documents also can be used to generate interview questions or to identify events to be observed. Furthermore, existing records can be useful for making comparisons (e.g., comparing project participants to project applicants, project proposal to implementation records, or documentation of institutional policies and program descriptions prior to and following implementation of project interventions and activities).