People need between 7 to 9 hours of sleep per night. Sleep serves important restorative functions such as rebuilding proteins, replenishing energy supplies, and facilitating learning and memory consolidation. Damage to the suprachiasmatic nucleus disrupts circadian rhythms. The suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates the pineal gland which secretes melatonin, increasing sleepiness. There are various stages of sleep including REM and non-REM sleep. Brain mechanisms such as the reticular formation, locus coeruleus, and basal forebrain regulate arousal and sleep cycles.
Isabella thoburn college neural mechanism of sleepMadeeha Zaidi
Sleep is regulated by two main mechanisms - sleep homeostasis and circadian rhythms. Sleep homeostasis refers to the increasing need for sleep driven by a buildup of adenosine in the brain throughout periods of wakefulness. Circadian rhythms refer to the approximately 24 hour cycles in physiology and behavior driven by the brain's biological clock in the hypothalamus, which is synchronized to light/dark cycles. Disruptions to these mechanisms can cause sleep disorders like jet lag. Neural control of sleep involves both sleep-promoting and wake-promoting areas. Key sleep-promoting areas include the basal forebrain, raphe nucleus, and ventrolateral preoptic area. Key wake-promoting areas include the brainstem
- Animals generate circadian and circannual rhythms that regulate sleep/wake cycles, eating/drinking patterns, temperature, hormone secretion and other functions on 24-hour and yearly cycles respectively.
- Humans have a circadian rhythm slightly longer than 24 hours that is reset by light/dark cues. Disruption of circadian rhythms can cause jet lag. The suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates circadian rhythms.
- Sleep stages include NREM (stages 1-4) and REM sleep. REM is characterized by dreaming and paralysis while NREM deepens across stages 1-4. Sleep aids restoration, energy conservation, memory consolidation and more.
This document discusses sleep and biological rhythms. It summarizes that sleep is characterized by altered consciousness, lack of movement, and dreaming. Sleep occurs in cycles alternating between non-REM and REM sleep. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contains the biological clock that regulates circadian rhythms. The SCN receives light input and synchronizes circadian rhythms in cells that each have their own daily oscillation. Disruptions to sleep can cause disorders like insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and sleep paralysis.
Melatonin: Current evidences in Psychiatric disordersAdarsh Tripathi
This document discusses current evidence on the use of exogenous melatonin for various psychiatric disorders and sleep conditions. It outlines several potential indications for melatonin including primary insomnia, REM-related sleep disorders, circadian rhythm disorders, and insomnia in medically ill patients or those with neurological disorders. Melatonin is noted to be well-tolerated with few side effects compared to other sleep medications. Doses of 1-10mg taken 30-60 minutes before bed are recommended, depending on the condition. However, studies on melatonin are limited by small sample sizes and heterogeneity.
Ella enjoys yoga because she finds it relaxing and it helps relieve stress. During a yoga session, Ella would likely show alpha brainwave patterns, which are associated with relaxation and meditation. An electroencephalograph (EEG) would best measure Ella's brainwave activity during yoga because it detects and records electrical activity in the brain, including different wave patterns.
The human brain is larger relative to body size than any other animal. While whales and elephants have larger brains absolutely, the human brain is almost twice as large as a dolphin's and three times larger than a chimpanzee's when adjusted for body size. This is due to expansions in areas like the cerebral cortex which is associated with advanced cognitive functions. The human brain requires a high level of energy despite being only 2% of body weight. It plays a key role in functions like memory, language, sleep, and dreaming. However, researchers have shown that brain-computer interfaces designed for entertainment could potentially be hacked to extract private information from a person's thoughts.
Neurobiology of sleep_disorders_lattova(5280ab0cb6099)Hena Jawaid
This document provides an overview of neurobiology of sleep and sleep disorders. It defines normal sleep, describes the circadian rhythm and two-process model that regulate sleep-wake cycles. It outlines the reticular activating system and flip-flop switch that control transitions between wake and sleep states. Non-REM and REM sleep are characterized based on EEG patterns. Polysomnography and other tools for measuring sleep are discussed. Common sleep disorders like insomnia are introduced.
Sleep is a universal behavior characterized by decreased awareness and lack of movement. It occupies about one-third of human lives and serves important functions, though its exact purposes are unknown. Sleep involves two main types - NREM and REM sleep - which have distinct neural and physiological features. NREM sleep is further divided into stages based on EEG patterns, with deeper stages occurring earlier in the night. REM sleep involves muscle paralysis and dream-like brain activity. Wakefulness involves neural circuits that increase arousal, while distinct brain regions regulate NREM and REM sleep through complex interactions between activating and inhibitory systems.
- Most adults need 7-9 hours of sleep per night. Sleep has important biological functions including restoring homeostasis and physiological processes that occur in sleep cycles.
- Sleep is regulated by circadian rhythms controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus and influenced by environmental cues like light and dark cycles. Disruptions to circadian rhythms can cause issues like jet lag.
- Sleep deprivation negatively impacts cognitive performance and mood, with effects accumulating over time without sleep. However, studies have shown some ability of the brain to adapt to long-term sleep reductions.
This document provides an overview of sleep, including its definition, stages, neurobiology, and relevance to psychiatry. It describes the two main types of sleep - REM and NREM sleep - and the different stages of NREM sleep. The neurobiology of sleep and wakefulness involves separate but interacting systems in the brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain. Key structures and neurotransmitters that promote wakefulness include the ascending reticular activating system, locus ceruleus, tuberomamillary nucleus, pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus, and hypocretin. Age and circadian rhythms also influence sleep patterns.
The document summarizes key topics related to sleep and biological rhythms. It discusses measures of sleep such as EEG and EMG recordings, the stages and cycles of sleep, dreaming and functions of sleep. It also covers neural regulation of arousal and different sleep states. Biological rhythms like circadian and seasonal rhythms are governed by the suprachiasmatic nucleus which receives light input and synchronizes rhythms via chemical signals. Disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea are also mentioned.
The document discusses the reticular activating system (RAS), which is a network of neurons in the brainstem that regulates states of consciousness and sleep-wake cycles. Stimulation of different areas of the reticular formation can increase or decrease spinal reflexes. The RAS includes noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic neurons that project ascending signals to the thalamus and cortex. Damage to parts of the RAS can impair consciousness. Sleep involves circadian rhythms and cycles through non-REM and REM sleep stages, each with different patterns of neuronal activity and physiological changes.
The Reticular Activating System (RAS) is a network of neurons that extends from the brainstem to different parts of the brain and spinal cord. It functions to regulate arousal, alertness, and selective attention by increasing or decreasing activity and directing cortical areas to focus on relevant information. Destroying the RAS causes a coma similar to sleep, while stimulating it instantly awakens sleeping animals. The Thalamus filters and relays incoming sensory information, with the exception of smell, to cortical areas. It plays a role in attention by emphasizing certain information and regulates arousal through its connection to the RAS.
This document summarizes key aspects of sleep including its stages, functions, impacts of sleep deprivation, and relationship to health conditions. It discusses the following main points:
1) Sleep has different stages including NREM stages 1-4 and REM sleep, which can be measured by polysomnography and follow a repeating sleep cycle.
2) Functions of sleep include consolidating memories, regulating emotions and mood, supporting creativity and insight, and restoring immune, metabolic, and restorative functions in the body.
3) Sleep disturbances and deprivation are linked to numerous health conditions and diseases including diabetes, obesity, cancer, and psychological issues, as well as impaired immune and metabolic functioning. Sleep deprivation experiments on rats found
This document discusses the history and science of human sleep patterns. It notes that historically, humans slept in two distinct periods throughout the night rather than one continuous period, waking up briefly in between. A study found that depriving volunteers of artificial light led them to revert to this bi-modal sleep pattern. The circadian rhythm and biological clocks that regulate sleep are also discussed, along with the neurobiology of sleep and wakefulness. Key brain regions and neurotransmitters involved in promoting sleep and wakefulness are identified.
1) All animals have endogenous circadian rhythms that regulate sleep-wake cycles on a 24-hour basis, as well as annual rhythms. The suprachiasmatic nucleus controls circadian rhythms.
2) There are different stages of sleep characterized by different brain wave patterns. Slow-wave sleep predominates early in the night while REM sleep increases later in the night.
3) Various brain structures and neurotransmitters regulate arousal and sleep, including the reticular formation, basal forebrain, hypothalamus, and orexin. Disorders can result from imbalances.
This document provides an overview of physiology of sleep and sleep disorders. It discusses brain waves during different sleep stages, the cycles of non-REM and REM sleep, theories of what causes sleep, the effects of sleep on physiological functions, comparative aspects of sleep across species, and consequences of sleep deprivation. Key topics covered include the different sleep stages, roles of neurotransmitters like serotonin in regulating sleep, and restoration of brain and body during sleep.
Lessson 3 characteristics and patterns of sleep 2015coburgpsych
This document discusses characteristics and patterns of sleep. It describes the stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep including stages 1-4, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep makes up about 80% of total sleep and involves brain wave changes from theta to delta waves as sleep deepens. REM sleep is associated with dreaming and active brain waves. Sleep cycles through NREM and REM stages about every 90 minutes. Theories on why we sleep include survival theories that it conserves energy and restorative theories that it repairs the body.
This document provides information about a residential housing project called ATS Tourmaline located in Sector 109, Gurgaon. It will consist of 5 towers with 410 homes and 8 villas spread across 10.4 acres. The project offers high-end amenities like a clubhouse with gym, swimming pool, and sports facilities. The homes will be constructed using American Art Deco architecture and will have spacious layouts. ATS Tourmaline is located near key infrastructure like the Delhi border and proposed Metro line, providing excellent connectivity.
Do you struggle to get to sleep no matter how tired you are? Or do you wake up in the middle of the night and lie awake for hours, anxiously watching the clock? If so, Check out our #SleepTips
This document describes the IONS 8000 Negative Ion Air Purifier. It has a dimension of 130 x 65 x 50 mm and runs on 220V/50Hz power. It produces 8 million negative ions per cubic centimeter. The document discusses the health benefits of negative ions, such as improving mood, boosting heart and immune system function, and speeding recovery. It is recommended for use in personal and home air filtration to eliminate airborne pollutants and protect against spreading of viruses and bacteria.
The document provides a systematic review of pillow and mattress designs and their impact on sleep quality, spinal alignment, and pain reduction. Six pillow studies and 24 mattress studies met the inclusion criteria. Key findings include: latex pillows improve sleep quality while feather pillows decrease it; medium-firm mattresses provide the best outcomes for improving sleep quality and reducing back pain; and individualized sleep systems help improve spinal alignment and sleep quality. Limitations include limited literature on pillows and no gold standard for subjective measurements. The purpose was to guide health care professionals on best pillow and mattress recommendations.
Green world health_devices-ozone_,massage_chair_pptPak Executive
1. The document discusses a multi-function anion oxygen device that can purify and sterilize food, water, and household items using ozone.
2. It describes experiments showing the device removing inks from water and toxins from meat.
3. The document promotes the health benefits of the device and provides directions for its use in sterilizing various items and treating tap water.
This document discusses proper posture and spine care. It emphasizes maintaining good alignment and an upright posture in all activities to avoid straining the lower back. Proper standing, seated, sleeping, and working postures are outlined, with a focus on distributing weight evenly and keeping the spine in a neutral position. The document stresses it is a team effort between the reader and chiropractor to maintain spinal health through both treatment and making healthy lifestyle choices.
Atoms become positively charged ions if they lose electrons, leaving more protons than electrons, or negatively charged ions if they gain electrons, giving more electrons than protons. Positively charged ions form when atoms lose electrons, while negatively charged ions form when atoms gain electrons.
- The document discusses the benefits of healthy sleep and introduces the MATTRESS ZONE brand as a manufacturer of high quality sleep products that help create a relaxing sleep environment. It then provides details on MATTRESS ZONE's various mattress collections that use materials like memory foam, latex, and pocket springs to provide comfort, support, and undisturbed sleep. The document concludes with tips for proper mattress care to ensure long-lasting comfort and support.
Circadian rhythms refer to biological cycles that occur over approximately 24 hours. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus acts as the master pacemaker regulating circadian rhythms. Lesions to the SCN abolish circadian rhythms, while transplanted SCN tissue can impart rhythms to recipient animals. The SCN receives light input from retinal ganglion cells that contain melanopsin photoreceptors sensitive to blue light wavelengths.
The document discusses the anion gap, which is a calculation used to assess acid-base imbalances. It is determined by subtracting the measured cations (sodium) from the measured anions (chloride and bicarbonate). An increased anion gap occurs when there are excess unmeasured anions like those produced during metabolic acidosis from substances such as alcohols, lactic acid, or renal failure. A decreased anion gap occurs when there are excess unmeasured cations like potassium or calcium, or decreased unmeasured anions like albumin or phosphorus. The example given at the end shows a patient with a negative or decreased anion gap.
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Varicose veins develop due to incompetent venous valves or defects in the vein wall that cause blood to pool in the legs. Symptoms include unsightly, swollen, twisted veins and leg heaviness. The document discusses risk factors, evaluation, and treatment options for varicose veins including compression stockings, sclerotherapy, microphlebectomy, and minimally invasive procedures like endovenous ablation.
Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in the rectum or anus that can cause pain, itching and bleeding. They are often caused by constipation or pregnancy which increases pressure in the veins. Symptoms include bleeding with bowel movements or protrusion of tissue from the anus. Treatment depends on severity but may include increasing fiber, warm baths, over-the-counter creams or if severe, procedures to cut off blood flow or surgery. With proper treatment, most people have relief of symptoms.
If you have health, you probably will be happy, and if you have health and happiness, you have all the wealth you need, even if it is not all you want.
~Elbert Hubbard~
This document discusses the physiology of sleep and sleep disorders. It describes the different stages of non-REM sleep (stages 1-4) and REM sleep, and how they are characterized by changes in brain waves, eye movements, muscle tone, autonomic functions, and more. Sleep is essential for survival but disturbances can occur in psychiatric illnesses. Sleep is studied using electrodes to measure brain waves, eye movements, muscle activity, and other physiological signals.
El anion gap mide la diferencia entre cationes y aniones medidos y representa la concentración de aniones no medidos como fosfatos, sulfatos y ácidos orgánicos. Un anion gap normal está entre 8-12 mEq/L y puede ayudar a determinar la causa de una acidosis metabólica. Es importante corregir el anion gap según los niveles de albúmina para evitar subestimarlo. Un anion gap aumentado indica un aumento de ácidos metabólicos como el ácido láctico, mientras que una disminución puede
This document summarizes key aspects of sleep physiology. It describes the two main types of sleep - slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Slow-wave sleep is deeper and more restorative while REM sleep is when most dreaming occurs. The brain activity and physiology differs between these sleep stages. Several theories are presented on what causes sleep, including that active inhibitory processes in the brainstem induce sleep rather than fatigue. The role of neurotransmitters like serotonin is also discussed.
Continuum of Consciousness
- Controlled and Automatic Processes
- Altered States of Consciousness
- Psychoactive Drugs
- Sleep and Dreams
- Different Stages of Sleep (REM and N-REM)
- 4 Major Questions About Sleep
- Sleep Disorders
- The Unconscious Mind
- Unconsciousness
This document discusses sleep anatomy and jet lag. It describes how structures in the brain like the hypothalamus and brain stem control sleep and wake cycles. Jet lag occurs when these circadian rhythms are disrupted by traveling across time zones. The document also recounts the author's experience with jet lag upon moving from Vietnam to Europe, including feeling exhausted for several days as their body adjusted to the new time zone. Finally, it emphasizes that sleep plays an important role in physical and mental health.
The document discusses the neurology of sleep. It describes the two main types of sleep - NREM and REM sleep. NREM sleep involves synchronous cortical EEG, low muscle tone, and minimal dreaming. REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movements, muscle atonia, and vivid dreaming. The document also discusses circadian rhythms and how the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates sleep-wake cycles. Disruptions to circadian rhythms can lead to sleep disorders like jet lag.
Sleep involves distinct stages including non-REM and REM sleep in cycles. The sleep-wake cycle is regulated by two processes - a homeostatic drive (Process S) for sleep that increases with wakefulness and a circadian rhythm (Process C) that promotes wakefulness during the day. Key structures like the suprachiasmatic nucleus and ventrolateral preoptic area help generate and regulate sleep and wake states.
Dr. Suresh Kumar Murugesan is a professor and researcher in psychology from Madurai, India. He specializes in areas like psychotherapy, positive psychology, education psychology, and cyber psychology. The presentation discusses sleep, explaining that it is essential for survival and important for brain functions. It describes the different stages of sleep - stages 1 to 4 of non-REM sleep and REM sleep. Brain structures like the hypothalamus, brain stem, and pineal gland are involved in regulating sleep cycles. Sleep is controlled by circadian rhythms and homeostasis. Lack of quality sleep can increase health risks like high blood pressure and depression. The document also covers brain waves and the different frequency bands measured during different states of
This chapter discusses consciousness and various states of consciousness. It covers circadian rhythms and the body's biological clock. There are different stages of sleep characterized by different brain wave patterns, as well as sleep disorders. Dreams occur during REM sleep and there are different theories about their meaning and purpose. Other topics covered include hypnosis, meditation, psychoactive drugs and their effects, and drug abuse.
This document discusses sleep and the brain waves associated with it. It defines sleep and describes the two types: slow wave sleep and REM sleep. It explains the neuronal centers and neurotransmitters involved in inducing each type of sleep. The sleep cycle is described as the result of three systems - the arousal system, slow wave sleep center, and REM sleep center - interacting cyclically. The document also outlines the different brain waves seen in EEGs - alpha, beta, theta, and delta waves - and their characteristics and associations with different brain states.
Sleep is an active, not passive, process where the body recuperates and the day's events are processed. It occurs in stages that progress from light to deep sleep and includes REM sleep characterized by eye movements. While sleep restores energy, its main functions are to maintain cognitive skills and normal functioning. The brain stem contains centers that induce sleep through inhibition of other areas, like the hypothalamus, while neurotransmitters like serotonin are also involved. Sleep cycles between non-REM and REM sleep in a regular pattern governed by activation and fatigue of neuronal centers in the brain.
This document summarizes key information about sleep and sleep disorders. It discusses how sleep is measured using EEG, EOG and EMG recordings. It describes the different types of brain waves seen on EEGs during sleep stages. The stages of sleep including non-REM sleep stages I-IV and REM sleep are outlined. Factors influencing sleep such as biological rhythms and neuroendocrine regulation are also summarized.
Sleep is a naturally recurring state that involves altered consciousness, inhibited sensory activity, and reduced muscle activity. It is important for healing, repairing the body, and improving concentration. There are four stages of sleep: three non-REM stages and one REM stage. The hypothalamus influences sleep cycles by regulating the release of melatonin in response to light, which makes people feel sleepy. Factors like age, recent sleep patterns, and sleep disorders can affect normal sleep stage progression.
Physiology of Sleep and its correlation with EEG wavesABHILASHA MISHRA
Content includes Physiology of sleep and and its correlation with EEG waves along with specific characteristics of different phases of sleep as well as an account of sleep disorders.
Sleep and rest, BSC NURSING FIRST YEAR NURSING FOUNDATION , UNIT X , MEETING NEEDS OF PATIENT , PHYSIOLOGY OF SLEEP, SLEEP DISORDERS, FACTORS AFFECTING SLEEP, PROMOTING SLEEP AND STAGES OF SLEEP.
Sleep has two types - rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. REM sleep is associated with dreaming and eye movements while NREM sleep has four stages with different brain wave patterns. Sleep is regulated by circadian rhythms and homeostasis. The brainstem contains sleep centers like the raphe nucleus and locus ceruleus that induce REM and NREM sleep respectively. Common sleep disorders include insomnia, sleep apnea, nightmares, night terrors and somnambulism. Movement disorders during sleep include restless legs syndrome and leg cramps.
Sleep is defined as unconsciousness from which the person can be aroused by sensory or other
stimuli.
distinguished from coma, which is unconsciousness from which the person cannot be
aroused. There are multiple stages of sleep, from very light sleep to very deep sleep; sleep
researchers also divide sleep into two entirely different types of sleep that have different qualities,
Sleep-wake cycle refers to our 24 hour daily sleep pattern which consists of
approximately 16 hours of daytime wakefulness and 8 hours of night-time sleep.
The complex process of the sleep-wake cycle is controlled by the body’s circadian rhythm and sleep homeostasis (the amount of accumulated sleep need that builds during time spent awake).
The document discusses various aspects of consciousness, sleep, and dreams. It begins by defining consciousness and describing different levels of consciousness such as waking, subconscious, and unconscious states. It then discusses sleep stages and brain wave patterns associated with each stage. REM sleep is specifically called out as the stage where most vivid dreams occur. The document also covers sleep disorders, the effects of sleep deprivation, and theories about the purpose and meaning of dreams.
The document provides information on sleep patterns and disturbances. It defines sleep and describes the physiology of sleep including the reticulating activating system and sleep stages. It discusses non-REM and REM sleep in detail. It also covers sleep requirements and patterns across the lifespan as well as common sleep disorders like insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and sleep deprivation. Finally, it briefly mentions parasomnias.
Why Does Seminal Vesiculitis Causes Jelly-like Sperm.pptxAmandaChou9
Seminal vesiculitis can cause jelly-like sperm. Fortunately, herbal medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can eliminate symptoms and cure the disease.
Exploring Alternatives- Why Laparoscopy Isn't Always Best for Hydrosalpinx.pptxFFragrant
Not all women with hydrosalpinx should choose laparoscopy. Natural medicine Fuyan Pill can also be a nice option for patients, especially when they have fertility needs.
Hepatocarcinoma today between guidelines and medical therapy. The role of sur...Gian Luca Grazi
Today more than ever, hepatocellular carcinoma therapy is experiencing profound and substantial changes.
The association atezolizumab (ATEZO) plus bevacizumab (BEVA) has demonstrated its effectiveness in the post-operative treatment of patients, improving the results that can be achieved with liver resections. This after the failure of the use of sorafenib in the already historic STORM study.
On the other hand, the prognostic classification of BCLC is now widely questioned. It is now well recognized that the indications for surgery for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma are certainly narrow in BCLC and no longer reflect what is common everyday clinical practice.
Today, the concept of multiparametric therapeutic hierarchy, which makes the management of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma much more flexible and allows the best therapy for the individual patient to be identified based on their clinical characteristics, is gaining more and more importance.
The presentation traces these profound changes that are taking place in recent years and offers a modern vision of the management of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma.
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Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that influence these rates.
Importance in Pharmaceuticals: Understanding chemical kinetics is essential for predicting the shelf life of drugs, optimizing storage conditions, and ensuring consistent drug performance.
Rate of Reaction: The speed at which reactants are converted to products.
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates:
Concentration of Reactants: Higher concentrations generally increase the rate of reaction.
Temperature: Increasing temperature typically increases reaction rates.
Catalysts: Substances that increase the reaction rate without being consumed in the process.
Physical State of Reactants: The surface area and physical state (solid, liquid, gas) of reactants can affect the reaction rate.
Hemodialysis: Chapter 8, Complications During Hemodialysis, Part 3 - Dr.GawadNephroTube - Dr.Gawad
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/pCU7Plqbo-E
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/kbDs1uaeyyo
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Hemodialysis: Chapter 8, Complications During Hemodialysis, Part 2 - Dr.GawadNephroTube - Dr.Gawad
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/FHV_jNJUt3Y
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/D5kYfTMFA8E
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
A comparative study on uroculturome antimicrobial susceptibility in apparentl...Bhoj Raj Singh
The uroculturome indicates the profile of culturable microbes inhabiting the urinary tract, and it is often required to do a urine culture to find an effective antimicrobial to treat UTIs. This study targeted to understand the profile of culturable pathogens in the urine of apparently healthy (128) and humans with clinical UTIs (161). In urine samples from UTI cases, microbial counts were 1.2×104 ± 6.02×103 colony-forming units (cfu)/ mL, while in urine samples from apparently healthy humans, the average count was 3.33± 1.34×103 cfu/ mL. In eight samples (six from UTI cases and two from apparently healthy people) of urine, Candida (C. albicans 3, C. catenulata 1, C. krusei 1, C. tropicalis 1, C. parapsiplosis 1, C. gulliermondii 1) and Rhizopus species (1) were detected. Candida krusei was detected only in a single urine sample from a healthy person and C. albicans was detected both in urine of healthy and clinical UTI cases. Fungal strains were always detected with one or more types of bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria were more commonly (OR, 1.98; CI99, 1.01-3.87) detected in urine samples of apparently healthy humans, and Gram -ve bacteria (OR, 2.74; CI99, 1.44-5.23) in urines of UTI cases. From urine samples of 161 UTI cases, a total of 90 different types of microbes were detected and, 73 samples had only a single type of bacteria. In contrast, 49, 29, 3, 4, 1, and 2 samples had 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 types of bacteria, respectively. The most common bacteria detected in urine of UTI cases was Escherichia coli detected in 52 samples, in 20 cases as the single type of bacteria, other 34 types of bacteria were detected in pure form in 53 cases. From 128 urine samples of apparently healthy people, 88 types of microbes were detected either singly or in association with others, from 64 urine samples only a single type of bacteria was detected while 34, 13, 3, 11, 2 and 1 samples yielded 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and seven types of microbes, respectively. In the urine of apparently healthy humans too, E. coli was the most common bacteria, detected in pure culture from 10 samples followed by Staphylococcus haemolyticus (9), S. intermedius (5), and S. aureus (5), and similar types of bacteria also dominated in cases of mixed occurrence, E. coli was detected in 26, S. aureus in 22 and S. haemolyticus in 19 urine samples, respectively. Gram +ve bacteria isolated from urine samples' irrespective of health status were more often (p, <0.01) resistant than Gram -ve bacteria to ajowan oil, holy basil oil, cinnamaldehyde, and cinnamon oil, but more susceptible to sandalwood oil (p, <0.01). However, for antibiotics, Gram +ve were more often susceptible than Gram -ve bacteria to cephalosporins, doxycycline, and nitrofurantoin. The study concludes that to understand the role of good and bad bacteria in the urinary tract microbiome more targeted studies are needed to discern the isolates at the pathotype level.
JMML is a rare cancer of blood that affects young children. There is a sustained abnormal and excessive production of myeloid progenitors and monocytes.
2. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams? People vary in their need for sleep. Most sleep about 8 (7 to 9) hours. Sleep is a specialized state that serves a variety of restorative processes including: ++++ Proteins are rebuilt. Energy supplies are replenished. Repair and restoration. Learning and memory consolidation. Sleep deprivation results in impaired concentration, irritability, hallucinations, tremors, unpleasant mood, and decreased responses of the immune system.
3. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams? Sleep also plays an important role in enhancing learning and strengthening memory. Increased brain activity occurs in the area of the brain activated by a newly learned task while one is asleep. ++++ Performance on a newly learned task is often better the next day if adequate sleep is achieved during the night.
4. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep All animals produce endogenous circadian rhythms, internal mechanisms that operate on an approximately 24 hour cycle. Regulates the sleep/ wake cycle. Also regulates the frequency of eating and drinking, body temperature, secretion of hormones, volume of urination, and sensitivity to drugs. Can differ between people and lead to different patterns of wakefulness and alertness. Change as a function of age. Example: sleep patterns from childhood to late adulthood.
5. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep Human circadian clock generates a rhythm slightly longer than 24 hours when it has no external cue to set it. Most people can adjust to 23- or 25- hour day but not to a 22- or 28- hour day. Bright light late in the day can lengthen the circadian rhythm.
6. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep Mechanisms of the circadian rhythms include the following: The Suprachiasmatic nucleus. Genes that produce certain proteins. Melatonin levels.
7. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep The suprachiasmatic (supra-keye-asmatic) nucleus (SCN) is part of the hypothalamus and the main control center of the circadian rhythms of sleep and temperature. ++++ Damage to the SCN results in less consistent body rhythms that are no longer synchronized to environmental patterns of light and dark.
8. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep The SCN regulates waking and sleeping by controlling activity levels in other areas of the brain. The SCN regulates the pineal gland , an endocrine gland located posterior to the thalamus. The pineal gland secretes melatonin , a hormone that increases sleepiness. ++++
9. Rhythms of Waking and Sleep Melatonin secretion usually begins 2 to 3 hours before bedtime. Melatonin feeds back to reset the biological clock through its effects on receptors in the SCN. Melatonin taken in the afternoon can phase-advance the internal clock and can be used as a sleep aid. A zeitgeber (z-eye-t gee-ber) is a term used to describe any stimulus that resets the circadian rhythms. ++++ Exercise, noise, meals, and temperature are others zeitgebers.
10. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms The electroencephalograph (EEG) allowed researchers to discover that there are various stages of sleep. Over the course of about 90 minutes: a sleeper goes through sleep stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 then returns through the stages 3 and 2 to a stage called Rapid eye movement sleep (REM). REM are periods characterized by rapid eye movements during sleep where postural muscles of the body are more relaxed than other stages. Stages other than REM are referred to as non-REM sleep (NREM) .
11. Fig. 7.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.
12. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Various brain mechanisms are associated with wakefulness and arousal. The reticular formation is a part of the midbrain that extends from the medulla to the forebrain and is responsible for arousal. ++++
13. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms The pontomesencephalon is a part of the midbrain that contributes to cortical arousal. Axons extend to the thalamus and basal forebrain which release acetylcholine and glutamate produce excitatory effects to widespread areas of the cortex. Stimulation of the pontomesencephalon awakens sleeping individuals and increases alertness in those already awake. ++++
14. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms The locus coeruleus is small structure in the pons whose axons release norepinephrine to arouse various areas of the cortex and increase wakefulness. ++++ Usually dormant while asleep.
15. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms The basal forebrain is an area anterior and dorsal to the hypothalamus containing cells that extend throughout the thalamus and cerebral cortex. Cells of the basal forebrain release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. ++++ Inhibition provided by GABA is essential for sleep. Other axons from the basal forebrain release acetylcholine which is excitatory and increases arousal.
16. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms The hypothalamus contains neurons that release “histamine” to produce widespread excitatory effects throughout the brain. This explains why anti-histamines could produce sleepiness. Orexin is a peptide neurotransmitter released in a pathway from the lateral nucleus of the hypothalamus highly responsible for the ability to stay awake. ++++ Stimulates acetylcholine-releasing cells in the forebrain and brain stem to increase wakefulness and arousal.
17. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Cells in the pons send messages to the spinal cord which inhibit motor neurons that control the body’s large muscles. ++++ Prevents motor movement during REM sleep. Cells in the pons are also the origin of a distinctive pattern of high-amplitude electrical potentials known as PGO waves (pons-geniculate-occipital). REM sleep is associated with a high density of PGO waves.
18. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Insomnia is a sleep disorder associated with inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. Results in inadequate sleep. Caused by a number of factors including noise, stress, pain medication. Can also be the result of disorders such as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, depression, anxiety or other psychiatric conditions. Dependence on sleeping pills and shifts in the circadian rhythms can also result in insomnia.
19. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder characterized by the inability to breathe while sleeping for a prolonged period of time. Consequences include sleepiness during the day, impaired attention, depression, and sometimes heart problems. Causes include, genetics, hormones, old age, and deterioration of the brain mechanisms that control breathing and obesity.
20. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness. Four main symptoms include: Gradual or sudden attack of sleepiness. Occasional cataplexy - muscle weakness triggered by strong emotions. Sleep paralysis- inability to move while asleep or waking up. Hypnagogic hallucinations- dreamlike experiences the person has difficulty distinguishing from reality.
21. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms Periodic limb movement disorder is the repeated involuntary movement of the legs and arms while sleeping. Legs kick once every 20 to 30 seconds for periods of minutes to hours. Usually occurs during NREM sleep.
22. Stages of Sleep And Brain Mechanisms “Night terrors” are experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror. Usually occurs in NREM sleep. “Sleep talking” occurs during both REM and NREM sleep. “Sleepwalking” runs in families, mostly occurs in young children, and occurs mostly in stage 3 or 4 sleep.
23. Fig. 9-18, p. 289 THIS CHART IS ONLY ACCURATE IF YOU ARE VERY UNHEALTHY OR TAKING PRESCRIPTION MEDICATIONS AND IT DOES NOT REFLECT A POSSIBLE ADOLESCENT INCREASE IN SLEEP TIME
24. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams? Biological research on dreaming is complicated by the fact that subjects can not often accurately remember what was dreamt. Two biological theories of dreaming include: The activation-synthesis hypothesis. The clinico-anatomical hypothesis.
25. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams? The activation-synthesis hypothesis suggests dreams begin with spontaneous activity in the pons which activates many parts of the cortex. ++++ The cortex synthesizes a story from the pattern of activation. Normal sensory information cannot compete with the self-generated stimulation and hallucinations result.
26. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams? The clinico-anatomical hypothesis places less emphasis on the pons, PGO waves, or even REM sleep. ++++ Suggests that dreams are similar to thinking, just under unusual circumstances. Similar to the activation synthesis hypothesis in that dreams begin with arousing stimuli that are generated within the brain. Brain stimulation is combined with recent memories and any information the brain is receiving from the senses. ++++
Editor's Notes
Figure 9.18: Time spent by people of different ages in waking, REM sleep, and NREM sleep . REM sleep occupies about 8 hours a day in newborns but less than 2 hours in most adults. The sleep of infants is not quite like that of adults, however, and the criteria for identifying REM sleep are not the same. (Source: From “Ontogenetic development of human sleep-dream cycle,” by H. P. Roffwarg, J. N. Muzio, and W. C. Dement, Science, 152, 1966, 604–609. Copyright 1966 AAAS. Reprinted by permission.)