This document discusses parasitology and the diagnosis of parasitic infections through fecal examination. It describes the different types of parasitic relationships and how common some parasitic infections are worldwide. The document outlines the proper procedures for collecting, transporting, examining through wet mount microscopy, and diagnosing parasites in fecal samples. These include using saline, iodine, and buffered methylene blue wet mounts to identify eggs, larvae, trophozoites, and cysts under the microscope. Thorough microscopic examination of concentrated fecal samples is necessary to reliably detect parasites.
The topic is highly useful for MBBS students.
Trichinella is a neamtode, The disease is called as Trichinellosis/Trichinosis. This topic will be explaining about Morphology of Trichinella, mode of transmission, life cycle ,clinical features, lab diagnosis, treatment and its prevention.
Amoeba are structurally simple protozoans that can invade and damage the intestinal tract. Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal amoeba that can cause amoebic dysentery or form extra-intestinal abscesses in the liver and lungs. E. histolytica was first discovered in 1875 and exists in trophozoite, precyst, and cyst forms. The cyst form is infectious and can be transmitted through contaminated food or water. In the intestine, trophozoites may invade the colonic mucosa, causing ulcers or abscesses with symptoms of bloody diarrhea. Liver abscesses are a common extraintestinal manifestation and can spread infection to other organs.
The document provides information about the genus Vibrio, including Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera. It discusses the morphology, growth characteristics, pathogenic species, and pathogenesis of Vibrio. Vibrio are common bacteria found in surface waters worldwide. Vibrio cholerae serogroups O1 and O139 cause cholera in humans through an enterotoxin that causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. The document details the identification and isolation of Vibrio species using different cultural techniques.
This document provides information on Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasite that causes amoebiasis in humans. It discusses the organism's classification, morphology, life cycle, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Key points include:
- E. histolytica lives in the large intestine and can cause intestinal amoebiasis or spread to the liver to cause amoebic liver abscess.
- It has three stages - trophozoite, pre-cystic and cystic. Cysts are the infective form passed in feces.
- Infection occurs by ingesting cysts which excyst in the intestine. Trophozoites multiply
Wuchereria bancrofti is a parasitic roundworm that causes lymphatic filariasis. It lives in the lymphatic system of humans and is transmitted by mosquitoes. The adult female worms release microfilariae that circulate in the bloodstream and can be detected via blood smears between 8 PM and 4 AM. Infection leads to swelling of the limbs and genitals known as elephantiasis. Diagnosis involves blood smears to detect microfilariae while treatment consists of medications like diethylcarbamazine, ivermectin, and albendazole. Prevention focuses on mosquito control and public education.
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects humans and other warm-blooded animals. It has a complex life cycle involving cats as the definitive host and intermediate hosts such as humans, cattle, birds and rodents. T. gondii infects the intestinal epithelium and muscle tissue and spreads via the bloodstream. While most infections are asymptomatic, it can cause flu-like symptoms in healthy individuals and severe eye and brain infections in immunocompromised people. Diagnosis involves serological tests and treatment consists of antibiotics. Control measures include proper hygiene and sanitation to prevent exposure from cat feces.
Plasmodium is a unicellular parasite that causes malaria in humans. It is transmitted via the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Plasmodium has a complex life cycle involving sexual reproduction in mosquitoes and asexual reproduction in humans. When an infected mosquito bites a human, sporozoites enter the liver and later infect red blood cells, causing symptoms such as fever, chills, and anemia. Diagnosis involves examining blood smears under a microscope to identify the Plasmodium species and stages. Treatment involves antimalarial drugs, while control relies on preventing mosquito bites and reducing mosquito populations.
LUMEN DWELLING FLAGELLATES - GIARDIA
REFS:
INTERNATIONALLY ACCEPTED BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY K. D. CHATTERJEE
TEXT BOOK OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY BY PANIKER
IMAGE SOURCES : FROM INTERNET
Echinococcus granulosus, also called hydatid worm belongs to class Cestoda
It causes cystic echinococcosis in livestock and humans being intermediate hosts and parasitize the small intestines of adult canids
It is a zoonotic disease
Definitive hosts are carnivorous predators like dogs, wolves, foxes and lions. While sheep, goat, cattle, pigs and rodents are intermediate hosts. Birds and arthropods act as mechanical vectors
Diphyllobothrium latum, also known as the fish tapeworm, infects humans who consume raw or undercooked freshwater fish containing plerocercoid larvae. The adult tapeworm lives in the small intestine and can grow to 10 meters long. It lays eggs that are released in feces and infect copepods in water. Fish eat the copepods and can become infected, transmitting the larvae when eaten raw or undercooked by humans. Infection usually causes mild or no symptoms but can potentially lead to vitamin B12 deficiency. Treatment involves praziquantel or niclosamide and prevention focuses on thoroughly cooking fish from infected waters.
Giardia duodenalis is a flagellated protozoan parasite that causes giardiasis. It has both a trophozoite and cyst stage. The trophozoite lives in the small intestine where it attaches to epithelial cells and feeds on mucus, interfering with absorption. It can cause diarrhea and malabsorption. The cyst forms when trophozoites pass through the large intestine and are excreted in feces. Cysts are hardy and infect new hosts when ingested. Giardiasis is common worldwide and transmitted through contaminated water. Treatment involves metronidazole antibiotics.
There are over 100 species of Plasmodium, some of which can infect humans and cause malaria. The four main species that infect humans are P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum. P. falciparum causes the most severe form of malaria and is responsible for over 1 million deaths per year globally. The life cycle of Plasmodium involves both sexual and asexual reproduction in humans and mosquitoes. Female Anopheles mosquitoes transmit the parasite between humans during blood-feeding. Laboratory diagnosis of malaria is usually done by examining thick and thin blood smears under a microscope to look for the parasite in red blood cells. Treatment depends on the species,
Parasitology is the study of parasites, which can live internally or externally on a host. This document discusses different types of parasites including parasitic protists like Plasmodium spp. (which causes malaria), helminths like the roundworm Ascaris, and fungi. It defines terms like definitive host, intermediate host, and reservoir host. It also describes the life cycles and transmission of various parasites and the diseases they can cause.
Wuchereria bancrofti is a parasitic nematode that causes lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) in humans. It is transmitted by mosquitoes and lives in the human lymphatic system. The parasite has a complex life cycle involving microfilariae in human blood that are ingested by mosquitoes during feeding. The mosquito serves as an intermediate host where the microfilariae develop into infective larvae, which are then transmitted to humans during subsequent blood feeding, developing into adult worms in the lymphatics. Clinical manifestations range from asymptomatic microfilaremia to lymphedema and elephantiasis of the legs and genitals due to long-term infection and damage.
Cholera is a serious bacterial disease that usually
causes severe diarrhea and dehydration. The disease is typically spread through contaminated water.
Modern sewage and water treatment have effectively eliminated cholera in most countries. It’s still a problem in countries like Asia, America and Africa. Mostly in India.
Countries affected by war, poverty, and natural disasters have the greatest risk for a cholera outbreak.
Taxonomy:
class : Gamma Proteobacteria
Order: Vibrionales
Family: Vibrionaceae
Genus: Vibrio
Species: v.cholerae, v.parahaemolyticus,
v. vulnificus, v. alginolyticus
MORPHOLOGY:
Gram negative, actively motile, short, rigid curved bacilli
Resembling letter “V”
about 34 genus
most common in water
1.5µ X 0.2 -0.4 µ in size
polar flagellum , strongly aerobic
Smear – fish in stream appearance
PATHOGENESIS:
Source: Ingestion of contaminated water, food,
fruits and vegetables etc.,
Incubation periods: 1-5 days
Symptoms: Watery diarrhoea, vomiting, thirst, dehydration, muscle cramps
Complications: muscular pain, renal failure, pulmonary edema, cardiac arrhythrnias
DIAGNOSIS:
Specimen: stool sample, water sample(envt)
Microscopy: a) Hanging drop : +ve
b) Gram stain :-ve
Culture: Mac conkey Agar :colourless to light pink
TCBS : yellow colonies
Serology: serological tests are no diagnostic value
TREATMENT:
Adequate replacement of fluids and electrolytes.
Oral tetracycline reduces the period of vibrio excreation.
PREVENTION:
Drink and use bottled water
Frequent washing
Sanitary environment
Defecate in water
Cook food thoroughly
coccidian parasite is a very important topic for pg entrance........so every important point about it have been discussed in detail......take a look at it...
This document summarizes key helminth parasites including cestodes (tapeworms), trematodes (flukes), and nematodes (roundworms). It focuses on the tapeworm species Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), their lifecycles involving cattle/pigs as intermediate hosts and humans as definitive hosts, morphology of adult worms and eggs, and the diseases they cause (taeniasis, cysticercosis). Diagnosis involves stool or blood examination for proglottids, eggs, or eosinophilia. Treatment is with praziquantel or albendazole.
- Wuchereria bancrofti is a parasitic roundworm that causes lymphatic filariasis. It lives in the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes of humans.
- The parasite has a two-host lifecycle, with humans as the definitive host and various mosquito species as the intermediate host. Microfilariae ingested by a mosquito develop into infective larvae that can be transmitted to another human.
- In humans, adult worms cause lymphangitis and lymphadenitis, leading to symptoms like lymph edema, hydrocele, and elephantiasis. Occult filariasis involves high eosinophilia without microfilaremia. Diagnosis involves microfilariae detection in blood
This document provides information on basic identification methods for human parasitology. It discusses various parasite identification techniques including microscopic examination of wet mounts, concentration methods for stool samples, and examination of other specimens like sputum, biopsies, and blood. The document outlines procedures for collecting and preparing stool, sputum, and blood samples for examination and describes examining samples microscopically to identify parasites, eggs, larvae, trophozoites or cysts of organisms like hookworm, tapeworm, whipworm, pinworm, Entamoeba, and Giardia. It also discusses concentrating techniques, normal values, artifacts, and use of the QBC method for diagnosing parasites in blood samples.
This document provides an overview of medical parasitology and laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections. It discusses key topics such as the definition of parasitology and medical parasitology. Various specimen types that can be used for diagnosis are described, including stool, blood, urine and others. Main diagnostic methods covered include microscopy, concentration techniques, staining of smears, and newer molecular methods. Specific procedures for examining common specimen types like stool, blood, and urine are outlined.
The document discusses methods for identifying bacterial pathogens. It describes three main categories of identification methods: phenotypic, immunological, and genotypic. Under phenotypic methods, it discusses microscopy techniques like Gram staining, acid-fast staining, and fluorescent staining. It also discusses culturing bacteria on different media like blood agar, MacConkey agar, and chocolate agar to examine colony morphology and biochemical characteristics. Successful identification relies on proper specimen collection, handling, and using techniques like microscopy, culture-based analysis, and immunological or molecular testing.
This document summarizes information about the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, including its life cycle, pathogenesis, and methods of diagnosis. It describes two stages - the trophozoite stage, which is invasive and feeds on red blood cells, and the cyst stage, which is the infective form passed in feces. Transmission occurs when mature cysts from contaminated food/water are ingested. In the small intestine, trophozoites are released from cysts and can invade the intestinal mucosa, causing amebic dysentery, or spread to other organs like the liver via the bloodstream. Diagnosis involves microscopy of stool samples to look for trophozoites and cysts or serological tests
Routine stool examination provides important information about gastrointestinal health and disease. A stool sample is examined macroscopically for characteristics like color, consistency, and presence of blood or mucus. Microscopic examination looks for items like white blood cells, red blood cells, parasites, fat, and bacteria. Chemical tests can detect occult blood, excess fat, sugars, and other markers. Proper collection and preservation of stool samples is important for accurate examination and detection of parasites. Both wet mount microscopy and concentration techniques may be used depending on the suspected condition. Stool examination aids in diagnosis of gastrointestinal infections, inflammation, malignancy, and malabsorption disorders.
This document provides an overview of common diagnostic tests and activities performed in medical laboratories. It describes tests in various sections including serology, clinical chemistry, haematology, parasitology, and microbiology. Precise procedures and appropriate equipment are needed for accurate testing and results that clinicians rely on for 70% of medical decisions. Proper laboratory layout, trained personnel, quality control, and sterile techniques are crucial for reliable diagnostic results.
Quality control procedures must be followed for specimen collection, preparation of reagents, laboratory techniques, and examination of results to ensure accurate diagnosis of parasitic infections. Specimens like stool and blood must be properly collected and handled to prevent deterioration. Reagents have expiration dates and must be prepared and stored correctly. Laboratory techniques must be performed carefully according to standardized procedures. Examination of final samples, like blood films, requires a quality sample and careful evaluation to avoid errors. Proper specimen collection times are important for certain parasites like malaria and filaria detected in blood.
This document summarizes key information about parasitic infections, including their clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, and most common pathogens. It describes how parasitic infections are typically diagnosed via microscopic examination of stool, blood, and tissue specimens. The document then outlines the various protozoan and helminthic pathogens that can infect the intestinal tract and other body sites, providing details on morphology, life cycles, symptoms, and treatment for major parasites like Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Cryptosporidium.
Fecal examination is commonly used to diagnose parasitic infections in animals. The process involves collecting a fresh fecal sample, preparing it using flotation or centrifugation with a flotation medium, and examining it under a microscope. Centrifugation speeds up the process by forcing heavier materials to the bottom and lighter parasite eggs to the top for easier identification. Examination of properly collected and prepared fecal samples can reveal evidence of parasitic infections and provide a diagnosis.
The document discusses guidelines for collecting wound swab specimens. It states that wound swabs are important samples sent to microbiology to identify bacteria and fungi causing infections. However, current practices for collecting and identifying specimens have deficiencies. The document then provides guidance on proper techniques for collecting representative wound swab samples, including cleaning the wound, using sterile swabs, sampling various areas, and promptly transporting swabs to the microbiology lab.
This document discusses diagnostic procedures for schistosomiasis in both high and low endemic areas. It describes several diagnostic methods including microscopic examination of stool, urine, or biopsy samples to detect parasite eggs. Serological tests to detect antibodies or antigens are also used when egg detection is difficult. These include ELISA, western blot, and dipstick tests to detect circulating cathodic antigen. Molecular tests can also detect parasite DNA from different life cycle stages. Direct microscopic examination remains the gold standard, but serology and molecular tests provide increased sensitivity for low-level infections.
This document discusses the process of making and staining a blood film to identify blood-borne parasites under a microscope. It describes how to collect a blood sample, make thick and thin blood films on a slide, and stain the films using a Leishman or Wright stain. The staining process colors nuclei dark blue/violet, erythrocytes pale pink, and cytoplasm pale blue, allowing identification of parasites like malaria. Thin films show intact red blood cells and species differentiation while thick films show lysed cells and higher parasite density.
This document provides information on identifying bacteria. It discusses the hierarchy of biological classification and describes methods for bacterial identification including microscopic morphology, macroscopic morphology, physiological/biochemical characteristics, and genetic/molecular analysis. Steps for diagnostic isolation and identification are outlined beginning with streaking samples on culture plates and observing colony characteristics. Methods for examining bacterial cells like Gram stain, flagella, capsules, and spores are covered. Biochemical tests for identification like indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer, citrate, and lactose fermentation are also discussed.
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This document discusses the nature of blood and forensic serology. It provides details on the components of blood, including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It also discusses blood grouping and typing using the ABO system and Rh factor. The document outlines various presumptive and confirmatory tests that can be used to detect the presence of blood and determine if it is of human origin. It also discusses the proper collection, preservation and transport of blood specimens as well as the examination and testing of seminal fluids and semen stains. Finally, it provides an overview of forensic entomology and how insect life cycles can be used to estimate time of death.
This document provides an overview of diagnostic methods for parasites. It discusses examining various clinical specimens like feces, blood, urine, sputum and biopsy material. For fecal exams, it describes macroscopic and microscopic evaluation including concentration techniques. It also covers examining blood by wet mount and stained smears to detect parasites. In addition, the document outlines methods for parasite culture, serology, molecular detection and animal inoculation for laboratory diagnosis of parasitic infections.
CONCENTRATIONS TECHNIQUES IN PARASITOLOGY PRESENTATION.pptxShreyayadav91
INTRODUCTION
Concentration procedure separate parasites from fecal debris and increase the chances of detecting parasitic organisms when these are in small numbers.
If number of organisms in stool specimen is low, examination of a direct wet mount may not detect parasites.
Thus, whenever possible, the stool should be concentrated.
Advantages
Maximizes the numbers of organisms detected which may be too scanty to be seen by direct microscopy alone. Worm eggs, larvae, and protozoan cysts may be recovered.
Disadvantages
Destroys trophozoite stages. Most concentration methods destroy trophozoites stages.
Concentration techniques can be classified as the floatation or sedimentation methods.
Floatation technique
Here solutions with higher specific gravity than the organisms to be floated so that the organisms rise to the top and debris sink to the bottom.
Principle
This technique involves suspending the specimen in a medium of greater density than that of the helminthic eggs and protozoan cysts.
Eggs and cysts float to the top and are collected by placing a glass slides on the surface of the meniscus at the top of the tube.
Floatation Methods includes:
Saturated salt solution technique
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Sugar floatation technique
Saturated salt solution technique
Procedure:
About half tea spoon (about 4 gm) of fresh stool or preserved stool in a flat bottomed container with 20 ml capacity.
Now, few drops of saturated salt solution (specific gravity 1.20) is added and stirred to make a fine emulsion.
More salt solution is added with stirring throughout to fill the container up to the brim, until a convex meniscus is formed.
A glass slide (3”*2”) is carefully laid on the top of the container so that the center is in contact with the fluid.
This preparation is allowed to stand for 20 minutes after which the glass slide is quickly lifted and examined under microscope after putting coverslip.
Zinc sulfate centrifugal floatation
Procedure
Make a fine suspension of about 1 g of feces in 10 m L of water and strain through gauze to remove coarse particles.
Collect the liquid in a small test tube and centrifuge for 1 minute at 2,500 revolutions per minute. Pour off the supernatant, add water, resuspend, and centrifuge in the same manner, repeating the process, till the supernatant is clear.
Pour off the clear supernatant, add a small quantity of zinc sulfate solution (specific gravity 1.18- 1.2) and resuspend the sediment well.
Add zinc sulfate solution to a little below the brim and centrifuge at 2,500 revolution per minute for 1 minute.
Take samples care fully from the surface, using a wire loop, transfer to slide and examine under the microscope. A drop of dilute iodine helps to bring out the protozoan cysts in a better way.
This technique is useful for protozoan cysts and eggs of nematodes and small tapeworms, but it does not detect unfertilized roundworm eggs, nematode larvae, and eggs of most trematodes and large tapeworms.
This document discusses microscopic examination techniques for intestinal parasites. Direct fecal smears can be used as a quick screening test but have limitations like small samples and false negatives. Fecal smears are examined wet or dried with stains like iodine. Concentration methods like flotation in saturated salt solutions increase parasite visibility by removing debris. Specific gravities between 1.10-1.35 are used to float different parasite eggs to the surface for examination.
Dr. T.V. Rao discusses what makes a good lecture. Some key points include:
- A good lecture is well-structured, engaging, and covers the essential material in a clear manner.
- Effective lecturers demonstrate expertise on the topic, use examples to illustrate concepts, and generate interest among students.
- While lecturing remains an important teaching method, especially for large classes, lecturers should aim to actively involve students through questions and other techniques.
- Preparation, clear communication, enthusiasm, and knowledge of the subject matter are hallmarks of successful lecturing. A good lecture facilitates learning while sparking students' curiosity.
The document discusses antibiotic resistance and the need for antibiotic policies in hospitals. It provides background on the development of antibiotic resistance over time. The key points are:
- Inappropriate antibiotic use promotes the spread of resistant bacteria. Hospital settings can foster drug resistance.
- An antibiotic policy aims to reduce resistance by optimizing antibiotic use and educating staff. The policy is developed with input from microbiologists, pharmacists, and clinicians.
- The hospital infection control committee implements and monitors adherence to the antibiotic policy. Continuous education is needed to ensure appropriate antibiotic prescribing.
The document discusses various parasitic infections that can affect the central nervous system. It covers how parasites can cross the blood-brain barrier and challenges in diagnosing neuroparasitic infections. Common methods include microscopy examination of blood or tissue samples, as well as newer techniques like PCR and antigen detection tests. Specific infections discussed in detail include malaria, toxoplasmosis, and infections caused by free-living amebae. The document emphasizes the importance of integrating clinical signs and laboratory diagnostic methods for accurate diagnosis of neuroparasitic diseases.
Toxoplasmosis is caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii and can cause encephalitis and neurological disease in patients with low CD4 counts. It is diagnosed through imaging, blood tests, and sometimes brain biopsies. Treatment involves antiparasitic drugs and maintaining CD4 counts through antiretroviral therapy. Cryptosporidiosis is caused by Cryptosporidium parasites and causes diarrhea. It is transmitted through contaminated water or food. Microsporidiosis is caused by various protist parasites and can infect the gut or other organs. It is diagnosed through stool or tissue samples and treated with antiparasitic drugs and antiretroviral therapy. Isosporiasis is
The document discusses the importance of proper specimen management in diagnostic microbiology. It states that specimen management has the most influence on accurate laboratory results and patient outcomes. Proper specimen management is key to accurate diagnosis, reduces errors, and directly impacts patient care and therapeutic decision-making. The document provides guidance on appropriate specimen collection and processing techniques to ensure representative samples and meaningful diagnostic results.
Artificial intelligence shows promise in helping to control infectious diseases and reduce antimicrobial resistance in three key ways:
1) AI can enhance disease surveillance and early detection of outbreaks by integrating diverse data sources to identify patterns.
2) It can help optimize antimicrobial treatment by recommending personalized therapy regimens based on a patient's clinical information.
3) Over time, AI may become an indispensable public health tool by facilitating more accurate intervention strategies and optimizing resource allocation to curb disease spread.
1) Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis observed higher mortality rates of women giving birth in the medical student ward compared to the midwife ward in the 1840s.
2) He discovered that the doctors in the medical student ward were coming directly from dissecting corpses to examining women without washing their hands, possibly transmitting infections.
3) Semmelweis mandated that doctors wash their hands with chlorine before examinations, which dramatically reduced the mortality rates in the medical student ward. This provided early evidence that hand hygiene reduces healthcare-associated infections.
Dr. T.V. Rao discusses causality department practices and environmental safety measures. Proper cleaning and disinfection are top priorities to prevent transmission of infectious agents and protect human safety. Dedicated cleaning practices are especially important when dealing with patients admitted with infectious diseases like diarrhea. Adherence to cleaning protocols and use of appropriate disinfectants can reduce healthcare-associated infections.
Biosecurity and infection control in hospitals aims to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. It includes proper hand hygiene, cleaning and disinfection of surfaces, use of personal protective equipment, and isolation techniques. Ensuring strict adherence to protocols through staff training and environmental monitoring is key to reducing healthcare-associated infections and protecting patients, staff, and the community.
This document discusses how microbiologists can improve clinical care through better laboratory reporting. It emphasizes providing accurate, clinically relevant results and clear interpretive comments to aid clinician decision making. Effective communication between the laboratory and clinicians is key. The document also highlights challenges such as information overload, confusion over terminology, and ensuring rapid reporting, especially for ICU patients.
This document discusses ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP), including its definition, risk factors, pathogenesis, prevention strategies, and more. Some key points:
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- Common risk factors for VAP include underlying illnesses, prolonged mechanical ventilation, supine position, and comorbidities like diabetes or heart failure.
- Bacteria are usually the cause, often multidrug-resistant pathogens like Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, and MRSA.
- Prevention strategies include
This document discusses hospital-acquired infections and strategies for prevention. It begins by honoring Ignaz Semmelweis, who in the 1800s established that handwashing reduced maternal mortality during childbirth by 90%. The document then discusses the nature and consequences of hospital-acquired infections. Key strategies for prevention discussed include the importance of handwashing, environmental cleaning, immunization, and establishing infection control committees and antibiotic policies. The challenges of drug resistance and maintaining standards with staff turnover are also addressed.
The document provides information on organizing and operating a bacteriology laboratory. It discusses the importance of the laboratory for hospitals and the roles and basic skills of microbiologists and lab professionals. It covers classifying and identifying common microorganisms like bacteria, examining specimens directly and through staining, culturing specimens using different media, and following sterile technique to prevent contamination. The document emphasizes the need for collecting, transporting, and processing specimens correctly to obtain accurate results and properly diagnose and treat patients.
This document discusses biosecurity and biosafety in healthcare settings. It defines biosecurity as a strategic approach to analyzing and managing risks to human, animal, and plant life from infectious diseases. Biosafety refers to measures that reduce exposure to potentially infectious materials. The document outlines various infection control methods used in hospitals including standard precautions, hygiene practices like hand washing, and managing nosocomial infections and needlestick injuries. It emphasizes the importance of education and surveillance to improve patient safety.
Artificial intelligence has the potential to significantly impact the practice of medicine. It is being used in areas like disease diagnosis using machine learning models, personalized treatment through precision medicine, and providing virtual assistants that can answer patient questions. AI also has benefits such as improving patient safety by reducing errors, lowering healthcare costs, and increasing access to care through tools like chatbots. However, medical professionals need more education on AI applications and their ethical use to ensure they improve patient outcomes.
The document discusses MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), including what it is, how it develops resistance, types of infections it causes, risk factors, screening and testing methods, and prevention strategies. MRSA is a strain of staph bacteria that is resistant to certain antibiotics like methicillin and oxacillin. Screening high-risk patients and implementing good hand hygiene are effective ways to control the spread of MRSA infections in healthcare settings.
This document discusses the history and methods of sterilization and disinfection. It begins with a brief history of sterilization dating back to the invention of the autoclave in 1862. It then covers terminology related to sterilization and discusses various sterilization methods including physical methods like heat, filtration, and irradiation as well as chemical methods. Factors that influence the efficacy of sterilization methods are also examined. The document provides an overview of the development and principles of sterilization.
This document discusses antimicrobial stewardship and the importance of appropriate antibiotic usage. It notes that nearly half of hospitalized patients receive antimicrobial agents. However, there has been misuse of antibiotics through treating trivial infections, commercial pressures, and a lack of understanding of antibiotic principles. This has led to a rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The document advocates for antimicrobial stewardship programs in hospitals to optimize clinical outcomes while reducing unintended consequences of antibiotic usage like toxicity, resistance, and costs. Such programs involve formulary restrictions, guidelines, education, and prospective audits to ensure appropriate antibiotic selection and usage.
Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics derived from the fungus Cephalosporium. The first generation was introduced in 1964 and provided activity against gram-positive cocci. Subsequent generations have increasingly broader coverage of gram-negative organisms. Mechanisms of resistance include beta-lactamase production and changes to penicillin-binding proteins. Later generations are used for serious hospital-acquired infections and as drugs of last resort for pathogens like Salmonella.
Coxsackieviruses were discovered in 1948-49 in Albany, New York and were named after the town of Coxsackie where samples were originally obtained. They belong to the Picornaviridae family and Enterovirus genus which also includes poliovirus and echovirus. Coxsackieviruses are divided into two groups - A and B - based on their pathogenicity in mice. Group A causes myositis while Group B causes muscle and neuronal tissue damage. Common diseases include hand-foot-and-mouth disease, herpangina, and myocarditis. Transmission is usually via the fecal-oral route. While there is no vaccine, treatment involves rest, fluids, and
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/QeWTw_fYPlA
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/fUWI9boFc7w
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CASE PRESENTATION ON ACUTE GASTROENTERITIS.Bhavana
This is a case presentation of a 72 year old female patient who was admitted in the hospital with the chief complaints of loose stools since 6 Days and generalised weakness and history of one episode of vomiting (one day back).
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2. BASIC TERMINOLOGY AND PRINCIPLES
• Symbiosis: Living together
• Commensalism: One symbiont
benefits, other unaffected
• Mutualism: Both symbionts benefit
• Parasitism: One symbiont
benefits, other is damaged
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3. The Reality of Parasites
• 1.3 billion persons infected with
Ascaris (1: 4 persons on earth)
• 300 million with
Schistosomiasis
• 100 million new malaria cases/
year
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4. Laboratory Methods For Parasites In Faeces
• No technique is 100% successful in detecting
parasites by a single stool examination, and at least
three serial stools must be examined before a
patient can be considered free from infections in
which stages of parasites would be expected to be
found in the faeces.
• Whilst clinical symptoms or a case history may
provide clues as to which parasites may be
present, each faecal specimen should be treated as
an unknown, as parasite stages unrelated to the
clinical picture may be present.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
5. Faecal specimens may contain several
stages of Parasites
• Faecal specimens are examined for the presence of
protozoa and helminthes larvae or eggs.
• The stages of protozoa found in stools are
trophozoites and cysts. The stages of helminthes
usually found in stools are eggs and larvae, though
whole adult’s worms or segments of worms may also
be seen. Adult worms and segments of tapeworms
are usually visible to the naked eye, but
eggs, larvae, trophozoites, and cysts can be seen only
with the microscope.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
6. Collection of faecal specimens
1. Because of the fragile nature of many intestinal
parasites, and the need to maintain their
morphology for accurate identification, reliable
microscopic diagnosis can’t be made unless the stool
is collected properly.
2. Approximately 10 grams of fresh faeces
uncontaminated by urine, oil, water, dyes or radio-
opaque into a clean plastic container.
3. The container should be free from antiseptics and
disinfectants.
4. Label all samples clearly with the patient’s
name, reference number, date, and time of
collection.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
7. Collection of faecal specimens
5. All samples should be accompanied by a
requisition form from the physician
giving relevant clinical details and recent
travel history.
6. Samples and forms from patients with a
confirmed or suspected diagnosis of
certain infectious diseases such as AIDS
or hepatitis should be clearly labeled
with “Risk of Infection” or “Biohazard”
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
8. Collection of faecal specimens
• 7.Most viable parasites are susceptible to
desiccation or temperature variation. If time
lapse between collection and observation is
considerable, i.e. more than 4 days, it may be
necessary to add some form of preservative to
the faeces to retain the morphology as near to
the original as possible.
• 8. Formed samples can be kept in a refrigerator at
+ 4c for a short while, but not in incubator.
• 9. Any whole worms or segments passed should
be placed in a separate container
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9. Collect the Information of the
Patient
• History (Age, occupation, residency, previous
infection)
• Complaint Provisional diagnosis
• Clinical examination
• Investigations Confirm the diagnosis
- Laboratory investigations
- Radiology
- Surgical intervention (Exploratory)
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10. The Microscopy in Parasitology
• The Microscope is the parasitologist’s main
tool. If possible the Microscope- should be
binocular; most suitable objectives are the
x10, x40, and x100.
• The Microscope must be covered and
immersion oil removed from the lens -with
xylene or ether when not in use.
• Calibration of the Microscope Eyepiece
Micrometer:
– On many occasions measuring the size of
suspected parasites in faeces is helpful for
identification.(eyepiece micrometer)
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
11. Microscopic Examination of
Wet Mount
• Wet mount is the simplest and easiest
technique for the examination of faeces, and
this method should be performed in all
laboratories at the peripheral level.
• A wet mount can be prepared directly from
faecal material or from concentrated
specimens. The basic types of wet mount that
should be used for each faecal examination
are saline, iodine, and buffered methylene
blue.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
12. The saline wet mount
• Is used for the initial microscopic
examination of stools. It is employed
primarily to demonstrate worm's
eggs, larvae, protozoan trophozoites, and
cysts.
• This type of mount can also reveal the
presence of red blood cells and white
blood cells.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
13. The Iodine wet mount
• Is used mainly to stain glycogen and the
nuclei of cysts, if present. Cysts can
usually be specifically identified in this
mount.
• The buffered methylene blue (BMB) wet
mount should be prepared each time
amoebic trophozoites are seen in a saline
wet mount, or when their presence is
suspected.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
14. Direct saline and iodine mounts
1. With a wax
pencil writes
the patient’s
name or
number and
the date at the
left-hand end
of the slide.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
15. Preparing a faecal specimen
• Place a drop of saline in
the centre of the left
half of the slide and
place a drop of iodine
solution in the centre of
the right half of the
slide.
• Note: If the presence of
amoebic trophozoites is
suspected, warm saline
(37c) should be used.
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16. Preparation of Wet film
• With an applicator
stick (match or
tooth pick), pick
up a small portion
of the specimen
(size of a match
head) and mix the
drop of saline.
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20. Examination
1. Put the slide with the mounts on the
microscope stage and focus on the mount
with the x10 or low-power objective.
2. Regulate the light in the microscope field with
the sub stage diaphragm. You should be able
to see objects in the field distinctly. Too much
or too little light is not good.
3. Examine the entire coverslip area with the
x10 objective; focus the objective on the top
left-hand corner and move the slide
systematically backwards and forwards, or up
and down.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
21. Examination Cont.
4. When organisms or suspicious material are
seen, switch to the high-dry objective, and
increase the light by opening the sub stage
diaphragm to observe the detailed
morphology.
-This is a systematic examination. If mounts are
examined in this way, any parasites present
will usually be found. If the mount is not
examined systematically, parasites may be
missed. Examine each microscope field
carefully, focusing up and down, before
moving to the next field.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
24. Need for Concentration Methods for
Faecal examination
• A concentration
procedure is performed
mainly to separate the
parasites from faecal
debris. The concentration
procedure not only
increases the numbers of
parasites in the sediment
but it also unmasks
them, making them more
visible by removing
organic and inorganic
debris
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25. STOOL EXAMINATION
Scanty infection
Concentration techniques
Sedimentation Floatation
• Heavy eggs (Ascaris egg) • Non Operculated eggs
• Operculated eggs (Trematodes) Trematodes ( S. m.)
• Larvae (Strong sterc.) Cestode
Nematode(Hookworms,Trichostong)
• Cysts
• Cysts
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27. STOOL EXAMINATION
Kato technique
Mesh screen
Hole
Template
Remove the template
Cellophane soaked by glycerin
(clears faeces
Egg count/ g stool
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Egg quant. Of: Ascaris, T. trich., Hookworms, S. mansoni
28. Stool examination other
Texhniques
• Stoll’s technique for eggs of
Ascaris, T.
trichiura., Hookworms, S. mansoni
• Baermann’s technique Detec. Of
Nematode L. /stool, soil
• Cultures for Nematode larvae using Filter
paper culture for Larvae of: St. stercoralis
(A,L) and Hookworms
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29. Artifacts
• Artifacts other things, living or
artificial, present in the stool that are
not parasites and could mislead the
laboratory worker.
• Note: “Artifacts not to be mistaken
for cysts”.
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
39. QBC Method is used in ….
• The QBC Malaria method is the simplest and
most sensitive method for diagnosing the
following diseases.
• Malaria
• Babesiosis
• Trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease, Sleeping
Sickness)
• Filariasis (Elephantiasis, Loa-Loa)
• Relapsing Fever (Borreliosis)
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40. QBC A QUICKER ALTERNATIVE IN
MALARIA
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41. How to read the QBC results ….
• When the operator looks
through the wall of the
tube, the nucleus of the
parasite fluoresces bright
green, and the cytoplasm
shows up as yellow-orange.
The shape and colours are
quite characteristic, and
since the parasites are
concentrated up to
1000X, there are usually a
large number of them in
any field of view in this area
of the tube.
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43. URINE EXAMINATION
Membrane filtration technique
air
10 ml urine
Nucleopore filter
+ Saline
Eggs of Schistosoma
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44. URINE EXAMINATION
HELMINTHES PROTOZOA ARTHROPODES
• S. haem.egg
• E. vermic. egg
• Pthirus pubis
• S. mansoni egg • T. Vag troph
• Mf (Ov, Wb)
• H sand
12/10/2012 Dr.T.V.Rao MD
45. Indirect immunological diagnosis
• Serology – All tests
available
• Skin Tests –
– IHA Specificity low,
– ELISA
• More useful in
cross reactions
– Amoebiasis common
– Leishmaniasis
– Malaria
–Casoni’s test
– Toxoplasmosis –Leishmanin test
– Trichinosis
– Filariasis
– Echinococcosis
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46. • Programme Created by Dr.T.V.Rao MD
for Basic learning in Human Parasitology
for Undergraduate Medical Students
• Email
• doctortvrao@gmail.com
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