Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) work by inhibiting the prostaglandin synthase enzymes, namely cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Traditional NSAIDs nonselectively inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2, whereas some newer NSAIDs preferentially or selectively inhibit COX-2. NSAIDs are used to reduce inflammation, fever, and pain in conditions like arthritis but can cause adverse gastrointestinal, renal, and cardiovascular effects. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2 and is used at low doses as an antiplatelet drug to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
This document discusses serotonin (5-HT), including its biosynthesis, distribution, receptors, storage, release, reuptake, elimination, and clinical applications. Serotonin acts as a neurotransmitter in the CNS and regulates smooth muscle in the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems. It is synthesized from tryptophan and metabolized to 5-HIAA. The seven main serotonin receptor types are distributed throughout the body and central nervous system. Serotonin has important roles in behaviors, mood, digestion, and vascular function. Drugs that modify serotonin signaling are used to treat conditions like migraine, depression, vomiting, and carcinoid tumors.
This document discusses sympatholytic agents, which block the effects of the sympathetic nervous system. It begins by reviewing catecholamines and alpha and beta receptors.
It then classifies sympatholytic agents, including different types of alpha and beta blockers. Alpha blockers are either irreversible or reversible, while beta blockers include non-specific, beta-1 specific, those with intrinsic sympathomimetic activity, and different generations of beta-1 selective and non-selective blockers.
Clinical uses of beta blockers include myocardial infarction, heart failure, hypertension, tachyarrhythmias, and others. Adverse effects include bradycardia, bronchoconstriction, fatigue, and hypoglycemia
The document discusses histamine and antihistamines. It describes how histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine and acts as a messenger in various tissues through four receptors: H1, H2, H3, and H4. The H1 receptor is located in blood vessels and smooth muscles and its activation causes effects like vasodilation. Antihistamines like diphenhydramine and loratadine block the H1 receptor to relieve allergic symptoms. H2 receptor antagonists like famotidine and ranitidine are used to inhibit gastric acid secretion by blocking the H2 receptor in the stomach. The document outlines the mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, side effects and uses of
Pharmacology of AUTOCOIDS : HISTAMINE & ITS SYNTHETIC ANALOGUESMdshams244
Histamine is a chemical messenger that mediates allergic and inflammatory responses. It acts through four receptor subtypes: H1, H2, H3, and H4. H1 receptors mediate smooth muscle contraction and increased capillary permeability. H2 receptors increase gastric acid secretion. Synthetic analogues that act as agonists or antagonists at specific receptor subtypes have therapeutic uses. Betahistine is an H1 agonist used for vertigo, while betazole and impromidine are H2 agonists that stimulate gastric acid secretion. Clozapine is an H4 agonist antipsychotic primarily used for treatment-resistant schizophrenia.
Parasympathomimetic or cholinergic drugs act on cholinergic receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system to produce effects similar to parasympathetic stimulation. They have two types of activities: muscarinic and nicotinic. Examples include direct-acting drugs like acetylcholine and indirect-acting anticholinesterases. Anticholinesterases inhibit the enzyme cholinesterase, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine at receptor sites. They are used to treat conditions like glaucoma, myasthenia gravis, Alzheimer's disease, and organophosphate poisoning.
NSAIDs work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes COX-1 and COX-2, which decreases the production of prostaglandins and leads to their anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2, while other NSAIDs reversibly inhibit the enzymes. NSAIDs are used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation conditions but can cause gastrointestinal adverse effects by reducing protective prostaglandins in the stomach. Their antiplatelet effect from COX-1 inhibition also increases bleeding risk. Acetaminophen is an effective antipyretic that is preferred in pregnancy due to safety.
Introduction to autacoids and classificationDikshakaushal8
Local hormones, also known as autacoids, are physiologically active substances produced locally in the body that have short-lived, localized effects. Some key classes of local hormones include amine derivatives like histamine and serotonin, peptide derivatives like bradykinin and angiotensins, and lipid derivatives like prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and platelet activating factor. These endogenous compounds play important roles in physiological and pathological processes through their actions on local tissues.
This document provides an overview of analgesics, with a focus on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It defines pain and discusses the classification, mechanism of action, and history of analgesics. NSAIDs are introduced as a class of drugs that relieve pain and inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and subsequent prostaglandin synthesis. The document outlines the role of prostaglandins in inflammation and bone resorption, as well as the beneficial and harmful actions of NSAIDs through COX inhibition. Host modulation is discussed as a treatment concept in periodontics where NSAIDs may reduce tissue destruction by modulating the host inflammatory response.
1) The document discusses sympatholytics, which are drugs that block alpha and/or beta adrenergic receptors to antagonize the actions of endogenous and exogenous sympathomimetic agents. 2) It describes the classification, mechanisms, and effects of alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonists and beta-adrenergic receptor blockers. 3) The therapeutic uses of these drugs include hypertension, benign prostatic hyperplasia, pheochromocytoma, and others.
This document is a report submitted by seven students to their professor at East West University about autacoids. It summarizes that autacoids are hormone-like substances produced locally in tissues that have effects on smooth muscles, glands, nerves, platelets and other tissues. The main types of autacoids discussed are biogenic amine autacoids like histamine and serotonin, phospholipid autacoids like prostaglandins, and polypeptide autacoids like angiotensin. The report focuses on histamine, describing the four types of histamine receptors (H1-H4), how histamine is synthesized and released, and the mechanisms and effects of different types of antihistamines.
This document provides an overview of corticosteroids, including their history, biosynthesis, classification, mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and adverse effects. Corticosteroids are steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex from cholesterol. They have important roles in carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism, electrolyte balance, and anti-inflammatory responses. Common therapeutic uses include replacement therapy for adrenal insufficiency, and treatment of conditions like arthritis, asthma, skin diseases, and organ transplantation. Adverse effects can include fluid retention, altered electrolyte levels, infections, delayed wound healing, and osteoporosis. Inhaled corticosteroids are commonly used as first-line therapy for chronic asthma.
Pharmacology of Histamine and antihistaminicsMudassirSada
This document discusses histamine, antihistamines, and their mechanisms of action. It provides details on histamine biosynthesis, storage, release, receptors, and pharmacological actions. It describes the classification and effects of first and second generation antihistamines. The therapeutic uses of H1 and H2 receptor antagonists for allergic disorders, pruritus, cough, and more are outlined. Pharmacokinetics including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of antihistamines are covered. Finally, the document reviews the adverse effects of antihistamines such as sedation, dry mouth, and fatigue.
Hypolipidaemics pharmacology with a note on Statins /Fibrates/ Sterol absorption Inhibitors/ CETP Inhibitors / Lipoprotein Lipase activators and Bile acid sequestrants
This document discusses drugs used to treat gout, which is caused by excess uric acid in the blood. It describes:
1) Drugs for acute gout that reduce inflammation like colchicine and NSAIDs or inhibit neutrophil migration.
2) Drugs for chronic gout that inhibit uric acid synthesis like allopurinol or increase excretion like probenecid.
3) The mechanisms of several anti-gout drugs including how NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and allopurinol inhibits xanthine oxidase to reduce uric acid production.
- The document discusses the adrenal cortex and the steroid hormones it produces, including mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol.
- It explains that these hormones aid in regulating processes like sodium balance, glucose metabolism, immune function, and stress response. They are synthesized and regulated through the HPA axis in response to ACTH.
- The effects, uses, and side effects of corticosteroid therapies are summarized for conditions like arthritis, asthma, skin diseases, and cancers. Long-term use can suppress the HPA axis and cause adverse effects like osteoporosis, infections, and metabolic disturbances.
This ppt discusses pharmacological actions, toxic effects and clinical applications of corticosteroids. It also mentions precations to be taken while using steroids
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) work by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) and subsequent prostaglandin synthesis. They are classified based on selectivity for COX-1 vs COX-2. Common side effects include gastric irritation, while selective COX-2 inhibitors were developed to reduce this but increase cardiovascular risk. NSAIDs are used for analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects in conditions like arthritis, but choice depends on safety profile and potency needed.
NSAIDs work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, which reduces the production of prostaglandins. They are classified based on their selectivity for the COX-1 and COX-2 isoenzymes. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2, while some NSAIDs like ibuprofen and naproxen are nonselective. Newer NSAIDs like celecoxib selectively inhibit COX-2. NSAIDs have analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory effects. Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal irritation, but hypersensitivity reactions also occur.
This document discusses nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and their mechanisms of action. It describes how NSAIDs work by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) and thereby blocking the production of prostaglandins. NSAIDs are classified based on their selectivity for COX-1 vs COX-2. Aspirin is highlighted as a nonselective NSAID. Its mechanisms of analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory effects are explained. Adverse effects of aspirin including gastrointestinal irritation and bleeding are also summarized.
This document discusses drugs that act on the musculoskeletal system. It covers NSAIDs like aspirin, ibuprofen, and diclofenac, which reduce inflammation and pain by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes and prostaglandin production. Specific details are provided on the mechanisms of action, uses, dosages, side effects, and toxicity profiles of common NSAIDs like aspirin, ibuprofen, diclofenac, indomethacin, mefenamic acid, celecoxib, and paracetamol. The document explains how these drugs work in the body to provide analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects.
This document provides information on non-narcotic analgesics (NSAIDs) that have analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. It discusses the inflammatory process and pain pathway, how NSAIDs work by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis via inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes, and the classification of various NSAIDs including aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, indomethacin, and others. It covers the pharmacological actions, pharmacokinetics, uses, and adverse effects of different NSAID classes.
The document discusses pain and analgesics like NSAIDs and paracetamol. It describes how NSAIDs work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase enzymes COX-1 and COX-2, which are responsible for prostaglandin synthesis. NSAIDs are classified as non-selective or selective COX inhibitors. Aspirin is a prototype non-selective NSAID that is used for analgesia, antipyresis and inflammation. Its mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic uses and side effects are detailed. Paracetamol is discussed as a non-NSAID analgesic-antipyretic that is metabolized in the liver and can cause toxicity in overdose through its reactive metabolite NAP
Non-opioid analgesics provide analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects through inhibiting prostaglandin production via binding to the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. They have weaker analgesic effects than opioids, do not cause central nervous system depression, and have no abuse or dependence potential. Common non-opioid analgesics include aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen which are non-selective COX inhibitors, and celecoxib which selectively inhibits COX-2 with fewer gastrointestinal side effects but increased cardiovascular risk. Non-opioid analgesics are used for mild to moderate pain and inflammatory conditions like arthritis but have potential adverse effects including gastrointestinal bleeding, hypersensitivity reactions, and salicylate
NSAIDs have analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory properties. They work by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and reducing prostaglandin production. NSAIDs are classified as nonselective COX inhibitors like aspirin, preferential COX-2 inhibitors like nimesulide, or selective COX-2 inhibitors like celecoxib. Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal irritation. NSAIDs are used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation conditions like arthritis.
Pharmacology of NSAIDs (Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (Dr. Sohail Ahmad)Sohail Ahmad
NSAIDs work by inhibiting the biosynthesis of prostanoids like prostaglandins and thromboxane by blocking the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. Aspirin is a non-selective NSAID that irreversibly inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2 isoforms, reducing inflammation and pain. It is used for conditions like arthritis but can cause gastrointestinal adverse effects. Newer selective COX-2 inhibitors have fewer gastrointestinal side effects.
9. NSAIDS.pptxNSAIDS inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) types 1 and 2, w...samiyamohammed284
Renal
Renally produced prostaglandins (PGE2 and PGI2) are essential
in maintaining adequate renal perfusion when the level of circulating vasoconstrictors Platelets
Impaired platelet function (reduced aggregation).
as a result of decreased thromboxane A2 (TXA2) production.
TXA2 is present in large amounts in activated platelets and acts locally as a chemo-attractant for other platelets, leads to the formation of a platelet plug and induces localized vasoconstric
This document summarizes nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It discusses how NSAIDs work by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and thereby decreasing production of prostaglandins involved in pain, fever and inflammation. NSAIDs are classified based on selectivity for COX-1 versus COX-2. Key points covered include the physiological roles of prostaglandins, properties and side effects of common NSAIDs like aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and COX-2 inhibitors, as well as their various clinical uses and precautions.
1. NSAIDs work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, mainly COX-1 and COX-2, which decreases prostaglandin synthesis and produces their pharmacological effects. Selective COX-2 inhibitors have fewer side effects than non-selective NSAIDs.
2. NSAIDs have analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory effects. Common side effects include gastric irritation, ulcers, renal impairment, and platelet dysfunction.
3. Aspirin has antiplatelet effects useful for cardiovascular protection. Indomethacin is potent but non-selective. Paracetamol is safer for those with bleeding risks but less effective at inflammation. COX-
the topic contain nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs which include, mediatorsof inflammation, cox-1 and cox-2, classification of drugs, its pharmacological effect and adverse reaction of drug.
The document discusses analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory drugs. It classifies them into three categories: (1) non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen; (2) steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as dexamethasone and prednisolone; and (3) 5-LOX inhibitors and leukotriene receptor antagonists such as montelukast. It then provides details on the mechanisms of action, pharmacological effects, therapeutic uses, and toxicity of aspirin.
NSAIDs are a class of drugs that relieve pain, fever, and inflammation by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes. There are various types of NSAIDs classified by their chemical structure. All NSAIDs work by blocking prostaglandin production, but they differ in their selectivity for COX-1 vs COX-2 enzymes. Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal irritation and bleeding, as well as renal impairment. NSAIDs are commonly used to treat pain, fever, and inflammatory conditions like arthritis.
This document provides an overview of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It discusses their classification, mechanism of action involving inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, beneficial effects, toxicities, and individual drug profiles. NSAIDs are a chemically diverse class of drugs that reduce pain, fever, and inflammation by blocking cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and subsequent prostaglandin production. While effective analgesics, NSAIDs can cause adverse effects like gastric irritation, bleeding risks, and interference with other drugs due to competition for protein binding sites.
Cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors and non spesific non steroidal antiNur Hajriya
This document discusses nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and their mechanisms of action, effects, and examples. It notes that NSAIDs inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes COX-1 and COX-2, which are involved in prostaglandin synthesis. COX-1 mediates important homeostatic functions while COX-2 mediates inflammation. NSAIDs have analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects. Examples mentioned include celecoxib, rofecoxib, valdecoxib, and parecoxib. The document also summarizes the clinical uses, side effects, classifications, and descriptions of several common NSAIDs like aspirin and acet
Skeletal System and division of axial and appendicularRupaSingh83
The skeletal system consists of the bones and joints of the body. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum, which form the core of the body. The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower limbs and their attachments. The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement and mineral storage. It is divided into the axial and appendicular skeletons, with over 200 bones that can be classified by shape.
Special Senses (Eye -vision & Ear-hearing).RupaSingh83
The document provides an overview of the special senses and their anatomy and function. It describes the five special senses - vision, hearing, balance, smell, and taste. For vision, it details the anatomy of the eye including the cornea, retina, lens, and other structures. It also discusses common eye defects like macular degeneration and glaucoma. For hearing and balance, it outlines the anatomy of the outer, middle and inner ear including the tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea and semicircular canals. The functions of vision in capturing light and hearing in transducing sound are summarized.
Special Senses eye, ear , nose, tongue pptRupaSingh83
The document discusses the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and ear. The eye contains three layers - outer, middle and inner layers. The ear is divided into outer, middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea for hearing and semi-circular canals for balance. Sensory receptors in these organs detect stimuli and transmit signals to the brain.
The peripheral nervous system has two main subsystems - the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight responses while the parasympathetic nervous system helps with rest and digestion. There are also 31 pairs of spinal nerves that carry signals between the brain/spinal cord and the rest of the body. The cranial nerves similarly connect the brain to different parts of the head and neck.
The integumentary system consists of the skin and its accessory structures. The skin is the largest organ of the body and has several layers, including the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium with keratinocytes that produce keratin. The dermis contains collagen, fibers and structures like hair follicles. Accessory structures include hair, nails, and glands. Hair provides protection while glands like sebaceous glands secrete oils to moisturize the skin. The integumentary system acts as a barrier and helps regulate body temperature.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy and physiology (HAP). It discusses the two main branches of science related to HAP - anatomy and physiology. Anatomy is the study of body structures while physiology studies functions. It then describes the six levels of structural organization in the body from chemical to organism level. The major human body systems are identified along with their main organs and functions. Basic life processes like metabolism, homeostasis, and feedback systems that help maintain homeostasis are explained. Finally, some key anatomical terminology used to describe body positions, regions, and directions are defined.
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune disorder that causes inflammation of the joints, especially in the hands and feet. It leads to a decline in functional status, work disability, systemic complications, and increased mortality. While the exact cause is unknown, rheumatoid arthritis is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors. The immune system mistakenly attacks the synovium membrane lining the joints, triggering chronic inflammation.
The document discusses drugs used to treat gout, including their mechanisms of action and side effects. It describes six main categories of antigout drugs: NSAIDs like indomethacin which reduce inflammation; colchicine which inhibits leukocyte migration; corticosteroids which decrease pain and swelling; uricosuric agents like probenecid and sulfinpyrazone which increase uric acid excretion; and the uric acid synthesis inhibitor allopurinol which competitively inhibits the enzyme xanthine oxidase. The document provides details on the pharmacokinetics, interactions, toxicity and use of each type of antigout drug.
Haematinics are substances that support blood formation and provide suitable conditions for the production of blood components. They contain iron and other nutrients essential for blood metabolism and anaemia treatment. Haematinics include iron supplements, vitamins B12 and folic acid, which help treat anaemias caused by deficiencies in these important nutrients needed for red blood cell production and maturation.
This document discusses coagulants and anticoagulants. It begins by explaining hemostasis, the process of stopping bleeding, which involves vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and blood clotting. It then describes the coagulation cascade and specific coagulation factors. Coagulants promote clotting and are classified as systemic (e.g. vitamin K, fibrinogen) or local styptics (e.g. thrombin, adrenaline). Anticoagulants prevent clotting and include heparin, warfarin, and antiplatelet drugs like aspirin. Both types of drugs are used to treat thromboembolic conditions.
The document summarizes the male and female reproductive systems. It describes the main functions and structures of each system. For the male reproductive system, it explains spermatogenesis (formation of sperm cells), the journey of sperm, and mechanisms of erection, ejaculation, and hormonal control. The female reproductive system produces and releases eggs and supports pregnancy. Key structures of each system are also outlined.
The reproductive systems in males and females consist of primary and secondary sex organs and glands. The primary function is to perpetuate the species through sexual reproduction. The female reproductive system includes the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina, and vulva. The uterus provides nourishment and protection to the fetus during pregnancy. The male reproductive system includes the penis, scrotum, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and Cowper's glands. The testes produce sperm and the other organs work together to deliver sperm via semen during sexual intercourse.
Haematinics are substances that support blood formation and provide suitable conditions for erythropoiesis. They contain iron and other supporting elements necessary for red blood cell production and maturation to treat anaemias caused by deficiencies in iron, vitamin B12, or folic acid which impair red blood cell formation. Haematinics include oral and parenteral iron preparations as well as vitamins B12 and folic acid, which have specific roles in blood cell formation and metabolism.
Genetics is the study of heredity and genetic variation. It involves DNA, genes, chromosomes, and the mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring. DNA carries the genetic information in cells and is made up of nucleotides with four bases - adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine. Genes are sections of DNA that code for specific proteins. Chromosomes package and carry the DNA, and genes determine traits by dictating which proteins are produced. Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins through the processes of transcription and translation.
This document discusses autacoids, which are locally acting hormones. It focuses on histamine, an important inflammatory mediator. Histamine is formed from the amino acid histidine and is released from mast cells and basophils. It plays a role in inflammation, allergies, and gastric acid secretion. Antihistamines work by competing with histamine for binding sites at H1 receptors. First generation antihistamines easily cross the blood brain barrier and cause sedation, while second generation antihistamines have less side effects. Histamine causes effects in various organ systems, and antihistamines are used to treat allergic diseases, colds, motion sickness, and other conditions.
This document discusses autacoids, which are locally acting hormones. It specifically focuses on histamine and serotonin, which are amine-derived autacoids. Histamine is produced from the amino acid histidine and is important in inflammation and allergic reactions. It is released from mast cells and basophils. Histamine causes effects through various organ systems and is broken down by histamine-N-methyltransferase and diamine oxidase. Antihistamines work by competing with histamine for H1 receptors. Serotonin is derived from tryptophan and is important in vasoconstriction, mood, sleep, and appetite, among other roles. It is found abundantly in the gastrointestinal tract and blood
The reproductive system has several key functions:
1. To produce gametes (sperm and eggs) through processes like spermatogenesis and oogenesis
2. To support the development of offspring through gestation and birth
3. To ensure genetic variation between parents and offspring through meiosis and sexual reproduction
The male reproductive system includes testes, which produce sperm and hormones, and organs like the penis and vas deferens that work together to deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract during intercourse. The female reproductive system includes ovaries, which produce eggs, and a uterus that supports pregnancy and childbirth. Both systems rely on complex hormonal regulation to drive functions like sexual maturation and the reproductive cycle.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The three meningeal layers - dura, arachnoid, and pia mater - cover the brain and spinal cord. Important dural folds in the brain include the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli. CSF is produced in the brain ventricles and circulates through the subarachnoid space, draining into dural venous sinuses like the superior sagittal sinus. Obstruction of CSF flow can cause hydrocephalus. Venous sinuses drain blood from the brain and include the transverse, sigmoid, cavernous, and petrosal sinuses.
The Jewish Trinity : Sabbath,Shekinah and Sanctuary 4.pdfJackieSparrow3
we may assume that God created the cosmos to be his great temple, in which he rested after his creative work. Nevertheless, his special revelatory presence did not fill the entire earth yet, since it was his intention that his human vice-regent, whom he installed in the garden sanctuary, would extend worldwide the boundaries of that sanctuary and of God’s presence. Adam, of course, disobeyed this mandate, so that humanity no longer enjoyed God’s presence in the little localized garden. Consequently, the entire earth became infected with sin and idolatry in a way it had not been previously before the fall, while yet in its still imperfect newly created state. Therefore, the various expressions about God being unable to inhabit earthly structures are best understood, at least in part, by realizing that the old order and sanctuary have been tainted with sin and must be cleansed and recreated before God’s Shekinah presence, formerly limited to heaven and the holy of holies, can dwell universally throughout creation
How to Add Colour Kanban Records in Odoo 17 NotebookCeline George
In Odoo 17, you can enhance the visual appearance of your Kanban view by adding color-coded records using the Notebook feature. This allows you to categorize and distinguish between different types of records based on specific criteria. By adding colors, you can quickly identify and prioritize tasks or items, improving organization and efficiency within your workflow.
The Value of Time ~ A Story to Ponder On (Eng. & Chi.).pptxOH TEIK BIN
A PowerPoint presentation on the importance of time management based on a meaningful story to ponder on. The texts are in English and Chinese.
For the Video (texts in English and Chinese) with audio narration and explanation in English, please check out the Link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUtjLnxEBKo
The membership Module in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Some business organizations give membership to their customers to ensure the long term relationship with those customers. If the customer is a member of the business then they get special offers and other benefits. The membership module in odoo 17 is helpful to manage everything related to the membership of multiple customers.
Understanding and Interpreting Teachers’ TPACK for Teaching Multimodalities i...Neny Isharyanti
Presented as a plenary session in iTELL 2024 in Salatiga on 4 July 2024.
The plenary focuses on understanding and intepreting relevant TPACK competence for teachers to be adept in teaching multimodality in the digital age. It juxtaposes the results of research on multimodality with its contextual implementation in the teaching of English subject in the Indonesian Emancipated Curriculum.
Principles of Roods Approach!!!!!!!.pptxibtesaam huma
Principles of Rood’s Approach
Treatment technique used in physiotherapy for neurological patients which aids them to recover and improve quality of life
Facilitatory techniques
Inhibitory techniques
Views in Odoo - Advanced Views - Pivot View in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, the pivot view is a graphical representation of data that allows users to analyze and summarize large datasets quickly. It's a powerful tool for generating insights from your business data.
The pivot view in Odoo is a valuable tool for analyzing and summarizing large datasets, helping you gain insights into your business operations.
How to Configure Time Off Types in Odoo 17Celine George
Now we can take look into how to configure time off types in odoo 17 through this slide. Time-off types are used to grant or request different types of leave. Only then the authorities will have a clear view or a clear understanding of what kind of leave the employee is taking.
Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC)- Concept, Features, Elements, Role of advertising in IMC
Advertising: Concept, Features, Evolution of Advertising, Active Participants, Benefits of advertising to Business firms and consumers.
Classification of advertising: Geographic, Media, Target audience and Functions.
Beginner's Guide to Bypassing Falco Container Runtime Security in Kubernetes ...anjaliinfosec
This presentation, crafted for the Kubernetes Village at BSides Bangalore 2024, delves into the essentials of bypassing Falco, a leading container runtime security solution in Kubernetes. Tailored for beginners, it covers fundamental concepts, practical techniques, and real-world examples to help you understand and navigate Falco's security mechanisms effectively. Ideal for developers, security professionals, and tech enthusiasts eager to enhance their expertise in Kubernetes security and container runtime defenses.
How to Store Data on the Odoo 17 WebsiteCeline George
Here we are going to discuss how to store data in Odoo 17 Website.
It includes defining a model with few fields in it. Add demo data into the model using data directory. Also using a controller, pass the values into the template while rendering it and display the values in the website.
Webinar Innovative assessments for SOcial Emotional SkillsEduSkills OECD
Presentations by Adriano Linzarini and Daniel Catarino da Silva of the OECD Rethinking Assessment of Social and Emotional Skills project from the OECD webinar "Innovations in measuring social and emotional skills and what AI will bring next" on 5 July 2024
2. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
(NSAIDS)
The term "nonsteroidal" is used to distinguish these drugs from
steroids, which have a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-
inflammatory action.
NSAIDs are non-narcotic, non-opioid, aspirin-like analgesics.
Most currently available NSAIDs act by inhibiting the
prostaglandin (PG) synthase enzymes.
Most NSAIDs are competitive, reversible, active site inhibitors of
the COX enzymes. Aspirin inhibits them irreversibly.
2
4. MECHANISM OF ACTION (MOA)
Cyclooxygenase Inhibition
Aspirin and NSAIDs inhibit the COX enzymes and PG production.
There are two forms of COX, COX-1 and COX-2.
COX-1, expressed constitutively in most cells, is the dominant
source of prostanoids for housekeeping functions.
COX-2 is the more important source of prostanoid formation in
inflammation.
4
induced by cytokines, shear stress, and tumor promoters.
6. COX1 COX2
*Expressed in all tissues
*constitutive
*COX-1 products (PGE2, PGI2) are
involved in normal cellular processes
in stomach, platelets and kidney
*Selectively expressed in renal, brain
& endothelium, fetus
•COX-2 products (PG) are induced by
various mediators of inflammation,
interleukin, superoxide radicals,
cytokines and endotoxins mainly in
inflammed areas and cause more pain
and inflammation
•Constitutive in brain and kidney
•Inducible in macula densa in
response to salt restriction
*Does not affect platelet aggregation
6
7. MOA CONTD…
Irreversible Cyclooxygenase Inhibition by Aspirin
Aspirin covalently modifies COX-1 and COX-2, irreversibly
inhibiting COX activity.
The duration of aspirin’s effects is related to the turnover rate of
COXs in different target tissues.
The importance of enzyme turnover in recovery from aspirin
action is most notable in platelets.
Platelets being anucleate have a markedly limited capacity for
protein synthesis.
• Inhibition of platelet COX-1–dependent TxA2 formation is
cumulative with repeated doses of aspirin.
7
8. MOA CONTD…
8
Selective Inhibition of Cyclooxygenase-2
Constitutively expressed COX-1 is the predominant source of
cytoprotective PGs formed by the GI epithelium.
COX-2 is source of PG formation in inflammation and cancer.
Selective inhibitors of COX-2 were developed based on the
hypothesis
• they would afford efficacy similar to tNSAIDs with better GI
tolerability.
10. MOA CONTD…
10
An anti-inflammatory action: the decrease in prostaglandin E2 and
prostacyclin reduces vasodilatation and, indirectly, oedema.
An analgesic action: decreased prostaglandin generation means
less sensitisation of nociceptive nerve endings to inflammatory
mediators such as bradykinin and 5-hydroxytryptamine.
An antipyretic action: endogenous pyrogens elevate the
hypothalamic set point for temperature causing fever.
11. THERAPEUTIC USES
Three main therapeutic effects of all NSAIDs, including selective
COX-2 inhibitors are:
anti-inflammatory effect: modification of the inflammatory
reaction
• Acetaminophen, which is antipyretic and analgesic is
largely devoid of anti-inflammatory activity.
analgesic effect: reduction of certain types of (especially
inflammatory) pain
antipyretic effect: lowering of body temperature when this is
raised in disease (i.e. fever). 11
12. THERAPEUTIC USES
Fetal Circulatory System: Indomethacin and ibuprofen have
been used in neonates to close the inappropriately patent
ductus arteriosus.
Cardioprotection: Aspirin reduces the risk of serious vascular
events in high risk patients.
• Irreversible acetylation of platelet COX → inhibition of platelet
function until sufficient numbers of newplatelets are released.
• Permanent and complete suppression of platelet COX-1–
dependent TxA2 formation → cardioprotective effect of aspirin.
12
14. OTHER CLINICAL USES
Systemic Mastocytosis:
⚫ In patients with systemic mastocytosis, PGD2, released from
mast cells in large amounts is the major mediator of severe
episodes of flushing, vasodilation, and hypotension.
⚫ This PGD2 effect is resistant to antihistamines.
⚫ The addition of aspirin or ketoprofen provides relief.
Niacin Intolerability: Aspin inhibits PGD2 mediated flushing by
niacin.
Bartter Syndrome:
⚫ Caused by mutations in a Na+-K+-2Cl− co-transporter.
⚫ Treatment with indomethacin, combined with potassium
repletion and spironolactone, is associated with
improvement in the biochemical derangements and
symptoms.
14
15. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NSAIDS
Gastrointestinal:
Abdominal pain
Nausea
Diarrhea
Anorexia
Gastric erosions/ulcers
Anemia
GI hemorrhage
Platelets:
Inhibited platelet activation
Propensity for bruising
Increased risk of hemorrhage 15
16. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NSAIDS
Renal:
Salt and water retention
Edema, worsening of renal function in renal/cardiac and
cirrhotic patients
Decreased effectiveness of antihypertensive medications
Decreased effectiveness of diuretic medications
Decreased urate excretion (especially with aspirin)
Hyperkalemia
Cardiovascular:
Closure of ductus arteriosus
Myocardial infarction*
Stroke*
Thrombosis*
16
* With the exception
of low-dose aspirin
17. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NSAIDS
17
CNS:
Headache
Vertigo
Dizziness
Confusion
Hyperventilation (salicylates)
Uterus:
Prolongation of gestation
Inhibition of labuor
20. ASPIRIN
Actions-
⚫ reduces inflammation
⚫ antiinflammatory action is exerted at high doses (3–6 g/day or
100 mg/kg/ day).
⚫ analgesic(0.3–1.5 g/day) for inflammatory pain
⚫ antipyretic (i.e. reduces raised temperature)
⚫ At low doses (40-325mg) it acts as antiplatelet drug
MOA- Irreversibly inactivating both cyclo-oxygenase (COX-1
and COX-2).
Abs/Distrb/Elim- Given orally. Half-life only 30min – rapid
hydrolysis to salicylate but effects last longer because the COX
has been inactivated and new enzyme must be produced. 20
21. USES
21
1. As analgesic
2. As antipyretic
3. Acute rheumatic fever
4. Rheumatoid arthritis
5. Osteoarthritis
22. USES
22
6. By inhibiting platelet aggregation aspirin lowers the incidence of
reinfarction in Postmyocardial infarction and poststroke patients.
Aspirin 6–1000 mg/day reduces the incidence of myocardial
infarction (MI)
‘New onset’ or ‘sudden worsening’ angina is associated with
high infarction rate & can be reduced to half by 100–150 mg
aspirin per day for 12 weeks.
Aspirin reduces ‘transient ischaemic attacks’ and lowers
incidence of stroke in such patients
23. ADVERSE EFFECTS
Gastrointestinal disturbances, especially gastric bleeding.
In high dosage can cause ‘salicylism’ (tinnitus, vertigo, reduced
hearing); allergic reactions occasionally; renal toxicity rarely.
Can cause the potentially fatal Reye’s syndrome
(encephalopathy & liver disorder) in children after a viral
infection.
At therapeutic dose it can cause hyperuricemia.
Prolongs bleeding time. 23
24. PRECAUTIONS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS
Aspirin is C/I in patients who are sensitive to it and in peptic ulcer,
bleeding tendencies, in children suffering from chicken pox or
influenza.
Liver disease: can cause hepatic necrosis.
It should be avoided in diabetics, in those with low cardiac
reserve or frank CHF and in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis.
Aspirin should be stopped 1 week before elective surgery.
Pregnancy & lactation
G-6PD deficiency
24
26. PARACETAMOL
Actions:
Paracetamol has potent analgesic and antipyretic actions but
rather weaker anti inflammatory effects than other NSAIDs.
MOA:
Inhibition of COX-1, COX-2 and also the recently identified COX-3
which occurs predominantly in the CNS.
Absorption/Metabolism:
It is given orally and metabolised in the liver (half-life 2-4 hours).
Metabolized to N-acetyl paraaminobenzo qunonimine (NAPQ) by
microsomal enzyme. 26
27. Adverse Effects:
o Hepatotoxicity due to NPAQ
o Glutathione produced by liver detoxifies NPAQ
o Chronic alcoholics are predisposed to toxicity due to
Reduced glutathione
Alcohol induces production of NPAQ from acetaminophen.
o Antidote of choice is N - acetylcysteine 27
28. DICLOFENAC
Diclofenac reduces inflammation , acts as an analgesic, reducing
pain in conditions such as arthritis or acute injury.
The action of one single dose is much longer (6 to 8 hours) than
the very short half-life that the drug indicates.
This could be partly because it persists for over 11 hours in
synovial fluids.
28
29. Diclofenac is used for:
musculoskeletal complaints: arthritis
rheumatoid arthritis
polymyositis,
osteoarthritis,
dental pain
ankylosing spondylitis
gout attacks
Pain management in kidney stones and gallstones.
Additional indication is: acute migraines.
Used commonly to treat : mild to moderate post-operative or post-
traumatic pain, particularly when inflammation is also present.
Is effective against: menstrual pain and
endometriosis. 29
30. Propionic acid derivatives
30
• Naproxen, fenoprofen, ketoprofen, flurbiprofen and oxaprozin.
Mechanism of action:
•These drugs are reversible inhibitors of the cyclooxygenases, and
thus, inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins.
Uses:
•All these drugs possess anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and
antipyretic activity.
•Used in the chronic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and
osteoarthritis, because their gastrointestinal effects are generally
less intense than that of aspirin.
31. IBUPROFEN
31
• Ibuprofen is a NSAID originally marketed as Brufen.
• It is used for relief of symptoms of
Arthritis
Primary dysmenorrhea,
Fever
As an analgesic, especially where there is an
inflammatory component.
32. Ibuprofen is known to have an antiplatelet effect, though it is
relatively mild and short-lived when compared with aspirin or
other better-known antiplatelet drugs.
Ibuprofen is a core medicine in the World Health Organization's
"Essential Drugs List", which is a list of minimum medical needs
for a basic healthcare system.
32
33. MEFENAMIC ACID
33
Used to treat pain, including menstrual pain. It is typically
prescribed for oral administration.
Decreases inflammation (swelling) and uterine contractions by
inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis.
Used for perimenstrual migraine headache prophylaxis, with
treatment starting 2 days prior to the onset of flow or 1 day
prior to the expected onset of the headache and continuing for
the duration of menstruation.
34. Since hepatic metabolism plays a significant role in mefenamic
acid elimination, patients with known liver deficiency may be
prescribed lower doses.
Kidney deficiency may also cause accumulation of the drug
and its metabolites in the excretory system. Therefore patients
suffering from renal conditions should not be prescribed
mefenamic acid.
34
35. INDOMETHACIN
35
Indomethacin, is a potent nonselective COX inhibitor and may
also inhibit phospholipase A and C, reduce neutrophil migration,
and decrease T cell and B cell proliferation.
Probenecid prolongs indomethacin's half-life by inhibiting both
renal and biliary clearance.
Clinical Uses:
Gout and ankylosing spondylitis. In addition, it has been used to
treat patent ductus arteriosus.
36. Clinical Uses:
36
An ophthalmic preparation for conjunctival inflammation to
reduce pain after traumatic corneal abrasion.
Gingival inflammation is reduced after administration of
indomethacin oral rinse.
Epidural injections produce a degree of pain relief similar to that
achieved with methylprednisolone in post laminectomy
syndrome.
37. KETOROLAC
37
T1/2 is 5-7 hours.
Ketorolac is an NSAID promoted for systemic use mainly as an
analgesic, not as an antiinflammatory drug (though it has typical
NSAID properties).
Rapidaly absorbed after oral and i.m. administration.
It is most often given intramuscularly or intravenously, but an
oral dose formulation is available.
Higly plasma protien bound and 60% excreted unchanged in
urine.
38. The drug has been used successfully to replace morphine in
some situations involving mild to moderate postsurgical pain.
When used with an opioid, it may decrease the opioid
requirement by 25–50%.
An ophthalmic preparation is available for anti-inflammatory
applications.
Toxicities are similar to those of other NSAIDs, although renal
toxicity may be more common with chronic use.
38
39. PIROXICAM
Piroxicam, an oxicam is a nonselective COX inhibitor but at high
concentrations also inhibits polymorphonuclear leukocyte
migration, decreases IgM rheumatoid factor and inhibits
lymphocyte function.
Suitable for use as long-term antiinflammatorydrug in
rheumatoid and osteo-arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis.
Toxicity includes gastrointestinal symptoms (20% of patients),
dizziness, tinnitus, headache, and rash.
When piroxicam is used in dosages higher than 20 mg/d, an
increased incidence of peptic ulcer and bleeding is
encountered. 39
40. INDOMETHACIN
Inhibits PLPA2 and possesses immunouppressive property
Indicated in Bartter’s syndrome
MEFANAMIC ACID
possesses PG receptor antagonistic and PLPA2 inhibitory activity.
Useful in dysmenorrhoea.
Piroxicam and Tenoxicam are longest acting NSAIDs due to
enterohepatic circulation.
Nefopam does not inhibit PG synthesis but relieves traumatic,
post-op and musculoskeletal pain.
40
41. COX-2 SELECTIVE INHIBITORS
These drugs have advantage of very little GI toxicity.
Renal toxicity is similar to traditional NSAIDs and chances of
thrombosis (acute MI and stroke) are increased on prolonged
use.
Celecoxib, rofecoxib and valdecoxib are sulphonamide derivatives
(can cause hypersensitivity reactions)
Etoricoxib is longest acting and requires hepatic function
monitoring during its use.
Lumiracoxib is a newer cox 2 inhibitor that has more activity in
the acidic medium.
41
42. COX-2 SELECTIVE INHIBITORS
42
COX-2 inhibitors have been recommended mainly for treatment
of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
Other indications include primary familial adenomatous
polyposis, dysmenorrhea, acute gouty arthritis & acute
musculoskeletal pain.
Currently, 3 selective COX-2 inhibitors (also called coxibs)
Celecoxib, Etoricoxib and Parecoxib are available in India.
Rofecoxib and valdecoxib were withdrawn due to increased
risk of thrombotic disorders like myocardial infarction.