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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE Compassion Fatigue and Stress among Wildfire Disaster Volunteers A graduate project subm
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CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
Compassion Fatigue and Stress among Wildfire Disaster Volunteers
A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of Master of Social Work
By
Andreina Gallardo
May 2024

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The graduate project of Andreina Gallardo is approved:
_______________________________________
__________
Dr. Hyun-Sun Park
Date
_______________________________________
___________
Dr. Allen Lipscomb
Date
_______________________________________
___________
Dr. Jodi Brown, Chair
Date
California State University, Northridge

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Dedication
This paper is dedicated to my family, my closest friends, and my life partner. I wouldn’t
be here today if it wasn’t for all the love and support you all showed me. Thank you for believing
in me.

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Table of Contents
Signature Page
ii
Dedication
iii
Abstract
v
Introduction
1
Literature Review
2
Method
5
Results
8
Discussion
10
References
14

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Abstract
Compassion Fatigue and Stress among Wildfire Disaster Volunteers
By
Andreina Gallardo
Master of Social Work
Purpose: Sonoma County, California was tragically impacted by wildfire disasters in 2017, 2019
and 2020. The amazing individuals who volunteer during this time of crisis really help reduce the
suffering fire survivors’ experience. Research Purpose: With so much time wildfire volunteers
spend with the fire survivors, and exposure to traumatic events, this study examines the
relationship between compassion fatigue and stress among the individuals who volunteer during
wildfire disasters. Methods: Participants (N=20) were over the age of 18 years old and had
volunteered their time during at least one of the wildfires in Sonoma County, either in 2017,
2019, or 2020 and completed an anonymous online survey. Results: There was a positive
correlation between compassion fatigue and stress (r = .67, n = 19, p < .01). Yet, study
participants rated themselves as having low levels of stress and compassion fatigue and medium
to high levels of compassion satisfaction. Discussion: These results align with previous research
that suggests a high compassion satisfaction rate within disaster volunteers despite the stress,
exhaustion, and other factors that come along with the job.
Keywords: Wildfire, Sonoma, Volunteer, Mental Health, Stress, Compassion Fatigue,
Compassion Satisfaction

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Introduction
Sonoma County, California is very much known for having an abundance of vineyards
and wineries, but over the past few years it has tragically also now become known for wildfires
in the area. Three major fires impacted the communities of this county in 2017, 2019 and 2020,
resulting in more than 300k acres burned and over 6k homes and structures burned (Mandeno,
2021). With the devastating impact wildfires leave on the residents of the area, there is an
immense need for the community to come together and help them recover. History has shown us
that humanitarianism presents itself in times of crisis and it's the amazing individuals who
volunteer their time to help reduce the suffering fire survivors experience (Knowles, 2019). In a
time of high stress and fear, volunteers are there to be present at the evacuation shelters, cook
food, distribute supplies, help translate, take care of animals, and connect the fire survivors to the
right resources (Knowles, 2019). Research shows anyone who is involved with taking care of
patients or clients like nurses, social workers, caregivers will eventually experience compassion
fatigue at some point in their career (Mathieu, 2018). Stress is also shown to appear in the body
and mind when responding to a disaster situation. With so much time wildfire volunteers spend
with the fire survivors, and exposure to traumatic events, this potentially could lead them to
experience stress or compassion fatigue just like other helping professions.
This very traumatic experience for fire survivors may also affect the volunteers who are
present throughout the catastrophe and are being exposed to the multiple different emotions of
the survivors as well as the systems that are in place with recovery. The purpose of the current
study is to examine the relationship between compassion fatigue and stress among individuals
who volunteer during wildfire disasters.

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Literature Review
Compassion Fatigue and Stress
Compassion fatigue is described as “diminished capacity to care as a
consequence of repeated exposure to the suffering of patients, and from the knowledge
of their patient’s traumatic experiences” (Cavanagh et al., 2020, pg.64). This can also be
commonly referred to as secondary traumatic stress (STS), which is an element of
compassion fatigue. STS is the result of the effects experienced by individuals who are
exposed to traumatic stories or work closely with survivors of disasters (Beckmann,
2015). This type of stress is different from regular stress, which is caused by a
challenging or difficult situation and impacts the person directly (Williams, 2021). Most
of the research on compassion fatigue and stress has primarily been focused on first
responders that are made up of emergency management, fire and rescue workers, law
enforcement, ambulance, and other health care crisis staff (e.g. Love, 2020; Mckoy,
2010). Research results at a fire department located in Colorado showed that
firefighters experienced high levels of emotional exhaustion, moderate
depersonalization, low reduced personal accomplishment, high compassion fatigue,
and moderate vicarious trauma (Stout, 2021). Although most research has been done
on first responders and fire survivors, a common principle of disasters is that anyone
who witnesses a disaster taking place will be touched by it in some shape or form
(Quitangan, 2015). To et al., (2021) reviewed multiple studies that showed that after
individuals experienced going through a wildfire disaster, whether they were directly or
indirectly impacted, there was an increased occurrence of health issues such as

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hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes as well mental health issues like PTSD,
anxiety, and depression (pg. 2).
In contrast, Gonzalez-Mendez (2020) found no significant differences in
compassion fatigue among 116 Spanish Red Cross volunteers with different levels of
post-traumatic growth or well-being. As evidenced by To et al. (2021) and Gonzalez-
Mendez (2020), the current state of literature is mixed in terms of compassion fatigue,
stress, and well-being.
Olivares (2015) conducted a doctoral dissertation designed to express how
important the usage of volunteers is during disasters, so much so that examining their
experience could be beneficial to potentially preventing secondary traumatic stress and
burnout. Olivares (2015) conducted a qualitative study in Texas by interviewing 10
disaster relief volunteers from the American Red Cross and the Austin Disaster Relief
Network, finding that the volunteers expressed exhaustion, loss of energy, stress, feeling
sick, and feeling hopeless during and after their service.
Why Volunteer?
Research suggests there is a high compassion satisfaction rate within disaster
volunteers despite stress, exhaustion, and other factors (Grove, 2015). In their study of
American Red Cross Volunteers (N=17), Grove (2015) found that they enjoyed
volunteering during disasters and even returned to volunteer due to the feeling of
satisfaction, opportunity to help others, and contributing to a worthy cause.
Overall, previous studies and research show the gaps and inconsistency of the
impact wildfires have on volunteers. While the overall impact of disasters is clear, the
narrowed studies conducted on volunteers show a mix between low to high levels of

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compassion fatigue, stress, and overall mental health issues, pointing directly to the
importance of the current study exploring the relationship between compassion fatigue
and stress among wildfire volunteers.

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Method
Participants
The participant pool for this study is made up of adults who are age 18 and over who
volunteered during at least one of the wildfires in Sonoma County, either in 2017, 2019, or 2020.
Participants were recruited through social media posts and through verbal/face-to-face personal
solicitation, including contacting the Director of the Sonoma County Community Organizations
Active in Disaster (COAD) so they could send out the survey to their list of volunteers.
The final sample (N=20) was 52% female, 38% male, and 10% who declined to state
their gender. The ages of the participants varied with the highest being between 41-60 years old
(33%), followed by 26-40 years old and over 60 years old (23.8% each), with 18-25 years old
(9.5%), and not replying (9.5%) tied for last place. Types of volunteers also varied, with 20%
identified as evacuation center volunteers, 28% identified as Local Assistance Center volunteers,
and 52% identified as “other.”
The Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects at California State University,
Northridge approved this study as exempt.
Measures
Compassion fatigue was measured using the Professional Quality of Life (ProQOL)
scale which measures and scores the components of compassion fatigue which includes 10
questions regarding compassion satisfaction, 10 questions regarding burnout, and 10 questions
regarding secondary traumatic stress. If a person scores higher than 23 in compassion
satisfaction, it indicates greater satisfaction in their field of work, but if they score lower than 23,
it indicates they might have problems at their job resulting in having low to no satisfaction.
Sample questions include, “I get satisfaction from being able to help people” and “I feel trapped

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by my job as a helper.” For burnout, if the score is below 23, that means the individual feels
good about being effective at their job. If the score is above 41, it indicates that the individual
feels less effective at work. Sample questions include, “I feel worn out because of my work as a
helper” and “I feel depressed because of the traumatic experiences of the people I help.” The last
component to compassion fatigue is secondary traumatic stress (STS), which is having secondary
exposure to a person’s traumatic experience or a stressful event and having that affect you
(Stamm, 2010). Scores above 43 represent high levels of STS. Sample questions include, “As a
result of my helping, I have intrusive, frightening thoughts” and “I can't recall important parts of
my work with trauma victims.” The ProQOL has been widely used and demonstrated good
reliability with the current sample. Compassion satisfaction (∝ = 0.88, Burnout
(0.75) and Secondary Traumatic Stress (∝ = 0.81).
Stress is measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) survey to have participants rate
what level of stress they are under. This standardized measure is a 10-item questionnaire that
participants self-respond to. It is scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 4
(very often). The total scores range from 0 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater overall
stress. The PSS has been widely used and demonstrated good reliability with the current sample
(∝ = 0.79).
Research Design
The research design for this project is a cross-sectional, quantitative study which gathered
the data by sending out anonymous online surveys. There was no stratification or randomization
of the sample. The survey consists of 46 questions and took about 10-15 minutes to complete.
Since the survey was online, the study activity could have been taken anywhere accessible.
Procedure

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Approval was given by the IRB, and recruitment material was posted on social media and
shared with the Director of COAD (Community Organizations Active in Disaster). Participants
had the opportunity to read and review the Participant Information Form first and then
determined for themselves if they would like to participate or not. If they decided to continue,
they took the survey and submitted their answers. The researcher and CSUN Professor were the
only ones with access to the results of each survey. All data records were stored electronically
through a password protected laptop and password protected folder in our electronic files.

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Results
The relationship between compassion fatigue (as measured by the ProQOL) and stress (as
measured by the Perceived Stress Scale) was investigated using Spearman’s correlation. This
indicated a positive correlation between the two variables, r = .67, n = 19, p < .01, with high
levels of compassion fatigue associated with high levels of perceived stress.
Table 2 shows the average scores participants had for compassion fatigue which is broken up
between burnout and secondary traumatic stress.
Table 2
Mean and Standard Deviation of Compassion Fatigue, Stress and Total Fires Volunteered
Scale
N
Mean
SD
ProQOL
Burnout
Secondary Traumatic Stress
Compassion Satisfaction
20
20
20
24.00
21.65
38.80
5.23
5.02
6.17
Perceived Stress
Total Fires Volunteered
19
20
16.57
2.14
6.67
.910
Qualitative Results
With the potential of experiencing stress or compassion fatigue, participants were asked
at the very end of the survey why they volunteer. Many had a common reason, expressing the
feeling of fulfillment and the importance of supporting their community. One participant
expressed, “To help others in areas where I have the expertise or resources. I enjoy seeing people
being able to have some stress taken off them and contribute to their well-being.” Another
volunteer mentioned, “I volunteer because it contributes to my fulfillment in life. I love helping
people overcome challenges that I have too experienced or have seen others experience.”

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Another volunteer shared, “As social creatures, we are most likely to feel fulfilled by helping
others. And fulfillment is the only emotion which can outlast both sadness and happiness.” And
lastly, “Being the light in someone’s time of darkness.”

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Discussion
Results revealed low levels of burnout and secondary traumatic stress, moderate levels of
perceived stress, and medium to high levels of compassion satisfaction. Study participants
averaged volunteering in just over two fires with no differences between women and men or by
age in the number of fires for which they volunteered.
Although these findings are limited due to the low number of participants, they are
consistent with other research that suggests how there is a high compassion satisfaction rate
within disaster volunteers despite stress, exhaustion, and other factors (Grove, 2015). Results
revealed that the satisfaction of helping others and volunteering during a crisis outweighs the
risks that can potentially affect the volunteer. It was also noted, albeit not statistically
significantly, that as the perceived stress level goes up, the number of fires volunteers choose to
work goes down, demonstrating that less stressed people might be more likely to volunteer.
Among other reasons, it would benefit the larger community for members to be less stressed,
since that might result in a greater number of volunteers in the event of a natural disaster.
Volunteers also want to feel supported during the time of their service. One participant
mentioned, “When I feel I am helping alone, it causes me to feel more stress and when I do not
see or get feedback regarding whether my efforts were helpful, I also experience a sense of stress
and futility.” Meaning, volunteers work more efficiently when they are consistently supported by
their own team and get recognition. Thus, the goal would be to make the volunteers’ experience
satisfying to them so that in the case there were to be another natural disaster, they would be
willing to return to volunteer again. If volunteers were provided the appropriate training before
they begin volunteering, they would be better prepared to identify when they felt stressed or

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compassion fatigue. This, as well as offering mental health resources post disaster, could also be
very beneficial to individuals and the larger community of which they are members.
The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) explains
that the typical stressors for disaster response teams may come from a variety of factors
including having personal experience with the disaster, direct exposure to the negative effects of
the disaster, feeling overwhelmed, working long hours, and poor management or leadership.
SAMHSA recognizes the importance of being self-aware and recognizing the warning signs of
stress, so disaster volunteers are able to provide themselves with self-care. SAMHSA includes
helpful stress reduction techniques and helpful stress management handouts, including a wallet-
sized compassion fatigue card so that disaster volunteers and staff can keep track of their mental
health needs.
The feeling of compassion satisfaction that volunteers are left with after volunteering is
what drives them to continue to volunteer. This highlights the importance of volunteering during
a disaster and how it often draws from a desire to help and give back to the community. Results
from the current study demonstrated low levels of compassion fatigue, moderate levels of stress,
and mid to high levels of compassion satisfaction, which adds to the mixed and/or inconsistent
results from previous research on the impact wildfires have on volunteers. With one study
showing no significant differences in compassion fatigue by trauma in Red Cross volunteers (i.e.,
Gonzalez-Mendez 2020), and another showing significant findings of exhaustion, stress, and
feeling hopeless in disaster volunteers (i.e., Olivares, 2015), the findings from the current study
showing low stress and high compassion satisfaction in volunteers are more consistent with
Gonzalez-Mendez (2020) findings. One factor has remained consistent which is the results on the

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reason why people volunteer in the first place. They may experience many different health and
mental health outcomes, but they volunteer for a bigger cause.
Limitations and Future Research
One of the main limitations was the lack of participants in this study. While the original
total number of participants who opened the survey was 30, the final number went down to 20
due to incomplete responses. Further, these are only a small fraction of the total volunteers
during a natural disaster and include only those who volunteered “officially” in one or more of
three wildfires in Sonoma County. Many more folks help “unofficially” during a natural disaster
than can ever be counted (e.g., providing a friend a place to sleep or hosing down a neighbor’s
roof as flames rise in the distance). As a result of the low number of participants, the study
results must be interpreted cautiously. Nevertheless, results are consistent with previous research
in that compassion satisfaction is very much the motivation for why they volunteer and reason
why they continue to volunteer. Future research should consider exploring what other factors can
contribute to the volunteer experience, such as the system their community has in place when
handling a natural disaster, the team they work with and how they communicate, and, of course,
the support they receive at the end.
One of the other limitations is that this study was conducted 4 years after the 2020
wildfire; the participants’ responses could have been influenced by other stressors in their current
home or work life. Future research should have participants fill out a survey post-wildfire
recovery to ensure effectiveness in gathering their scores when there is minimal history or
memory biasing their results.
Significance to Social Work

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As social workers, we care deeply for our client’s mental health and wellbeing, but we
also must ensure that our own mental health is well enough to provide that help and support.
Individuals who volunteer their time during wildfire disasters demonstrate a selfless act of being
on the frontline to provide support to their community. Similarly, the volunteers are there to take
any burden off the wildfire survivors’ shoulders and, just like social workers, they must be well
enough mentally to provide the healing the community needs. Thus, it is very important that
communities provide additional support and mental health resources not only to the fire
survivors but to the individuals who volunteer as well so they can thrive and be well enough to
continue serving their community.
Conclusion
For the individuals who dedicate their time to caring and helping others during crisis,
they could experience a level of compassion fatigue at some point in their life. As does stress
appear in the body when an individual faces a disaster. With most research focusing on the
mental health impact on the wildfire survivors and professional helpers such as fire fighters, the
question was raised on how the unpaid wildfire volunteers are impacted and whether there is a
relationship between compassion fatigue and stress among them. With this current study’s
findings, it was discovered that there is a positive correlation between compassion fatigue and
stress. Yet, even when compassion fatigue and stress are associated with each other, it's the
compassion satisfaction derived from helping that drives these individuals to volunteer and
makes it worthwhile.

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