Scipio Africanus: Difference between revisions

{{Other uses|Scipio Africanus (disambiguation)|Publius Cornelius Scipio (disambiguation){{!}}Publius Cornelius Scipio}}

{{Infobox person

* Proconsul (Spain, 216–210 BC)

* Consul (205 BC)

* Legate (Asia, 190 BC)

}}

| awards =

| allegiance = Rome

}}

 

 

Scipio's conquest of [[Carthaginian Iberia]] culminated in the [[Battle of Ilipa]] in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother [[Mago Barca]]. Although considered a hero by the Roman people, primarily for his victories against Carthage, Scipio had many opponents, especially [[Cato the Elder]], who hated him deeply. In 187 BC, he was tried in a [[show trial]] alongside his brother for bribes they supposedly received from the Seleucid king [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochos III]] during the [[Roman–Seleucid War]]. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of his peers, Scipio left Rome and retired from public life at his villa in [[Liternum]].

 

=== Campaign in Hispania ===

 

From the start of the war through to 211 BC, Scipio's father, Publius Cornelius Scipio, and uncle – [[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus]] – were in command of Rome's armies in Spain. They made some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable portion of their forces to handle a revolt by [[Syphax of Numidia]]. Through the seven years from 218, the brothers had successfully extended Roman control deep into Carthaginian territory.{{sfn|Briscoe|1989|p=57}} However, disaster struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack three separate Carthaginian armies and were [[Defeat in detail|defeated in detail]]. The brothers fell in separate battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by [[Hasdrubal Barca]], [[Mago Barca]], and [[Hasdrubal Gisco]]; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers.{{sfn|Briscoe|1989|pp=57–59}}

 

=== African campaign ===

 

Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship of 205&nbsp;BC amid much enthusiasm;<ref>{{harvnb|Livy|loc=28.38|ps=. "[A]ll the centuries voted amidst much enthusiasm for Scipio... It is recorded that a larger number of voters took part in that election than at any other time during the war. They had come from all parts, not only to give their votes, but also to get sight of Scipio".}}</ref> he was 31 and still technically too young to be consul.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2003|p=51}} When he entered into office, he demanded that the senate assign him the province of Africa and threatened to take the matter to the popular assemblies if it refused to do so. Despite fierce opposition from the princeps senatus, [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus]], the senate bowed to his pressure and he received Sicily with permission to cross into Africa if he wished.<ref>{{harvnb|Drogula|2015|pp=285, 298–299 n. 4 |ps=, citing {{harvnb|Livy|loc=28.40.1–2}} and Plut. ''Fab.'', 25.2.}}</ref>{{sfnm|Briscoe|1989|1p=63|Broughton|1951|2p=301}} Fabius' opposition may have been related to jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but also was likely informed by the failed African campaign {{circa|255&nbsp;BC}} under [[Marcus Atilius Regulus (consul 267 BC)|Marcus Atilius Regulus]] during the [[First Punic War]], which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2003|p=75}} The senate, regardless, assigned Scipio no additional soldiers, leading him to recruit an army of volunteers;{{sfn|Drogula|2015|p=136}} Livy reports that from his clients and supporters in Italy, he mustered some 30 warships and 7,000 men.{{sfn|Livy|loc=28.45–46}}

 

== Later life ==

 

=== Censorship and second consulship ===

 

=== War with Antiochus ===

 

In 192&nbsp;BC, Rome declared war on Antiochus,{{sfn|Errington|1989|p=283}} who – after a cold war with the Romans starting from the close of the [[Second Macedonian War]] through to 193&nbsp;BC – had invaded Greece.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffith |first1=G T |last2=Sherwin-White |first2=S M |last3=van der Spek |first3=R J |chapter=Antiochus (3) III |date=2012 |url=https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-505 |title=Oxford Classical Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.505 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5 }}</ref> Antiochus' initial push into Greece was met with little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful and largely open interstate system in the aftermath of the Roman proclamation of Greek freedom. It did not help that the cities that he did take had to be taken by force.{{sfn|Errington|1989|p=283}} The consul of 191&nbsp;BC, [[Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC)|Manius Acilius Glabrio]], arrived in the spring and promptly defeated Antiochus at the [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]] – Antiochus lost the battle and was forced back across the Aegean to [[Ephesus]] within six months of the war's start.{{sfn|Errington|1989|p=284}}

=== Trials of the Scipios ===

 

 

These enormous amounts of plunder triggered moral panic at Rome about the possible diversion of those funds to extravagant private use.{{sfn|Gruen|1995|p=73}} These troubles related to the broader matter of charting the boundaries of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in relation of monies obtained in war.{{sfn|Gruen|1995|p=87}} A confusing mess of stories related to the Scipiones' legal troubles are recorded in the ancient sources.<ref>{{harvnb|Gruen|1995|p=74|ps=. "No reconstruction can reconcile all the conflicting testimony".}}</ref>

 

===Death===

 

Scipio retired to his country seat at [[Liternum]] on the coast of [[Campania]], where he died. There are multiple dates reported for his death. [[Polybius]] and [[Rutilius]], who both lived shortly after his death, report that he died in 183&nbsp;BC; the later historian [[Valerius Antias]] reported that he died in 187&nbsp;BC. [[Livy]], arguing against both dates in his history, believed Scipio died {{circa|185&nbsp;BC}}, rejecting both dates with the argument that if Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as ''princeps senatus'' and that Scipio had to have lived to 185&nbsp;BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|1995|pp=59–60|ps=, referencing Livy, 39.52.}}</ref> However, most modern sources, such as the ''[[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', prefer 183&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Briscoe|2012}}

 

=== Roman opinions of Scipio ===

He also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful [[orator]], the secret of his sway being his deep self-confidence and radiant sense of fairness.<ref name="Scipio">{{cite book|title=Scipio Africanus: Greater Than Napoleon|last=Liddell Hart|first=Basil|year=1992|isbn=1-85367-132-0|pages=2–10, 24, 25, 200–207|publisher=Greenhill Books |orig-year=1926}}</ref>

 

==Legacy==

===Military===

Scipio is considered by many to be one of Rome's greatest generals. Skillful alike in strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring his soldiers with confidence. [[Livy]] reports that, as a Roman commissioner to [[Ephesus]] following the defeat of [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]], on meeting the exiled [[Hannibal]], Scipio took the opportunity to ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander," to which Hannibal named [[Alexander the Great]] as the first and [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] as the second.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0165:book=35:chapter=14|title=Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 35, chapter 14|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>

 

[[File:Medieval_Portrait_of_Scipio_Africanus_(Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art).jpg|thumb|Portrait of Scipio Africanus, marble, c. 1460–1465, by [[Mino da Fiesole]] ([[Philadelphia Museum of Art]])]]

 

 

Scipio is mentioned in [[Machiavelli]]'s work ''[[The Prince]]'' (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Clemency, And Whether It Is Better To Be Loved Than Feared"). [[John Milton|Milton]] mentions Scipio in Book 9 of ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' and in Book 3 of ''[[Paradise Regained]]''. [[Raphael]]'s painting ''[[Vision of a Knight (Raphael)|Vision of a Knight]]'' is thought to be a depiction of Scipio.

{{refbegin|30em}}

* {{Cite wikisource |author=Livy |author-link=Livy |title=From the Founding of the City |translator-last=Roberts |translator-first=Canon |year=1905 |wslink=From the Founding of the City |orig-date=1st century AD |wslanguage=en |ref={{harvid|Livy}} }}

* {{Cite book |author=Valerius Maximus |author-link=Valerius Maximus |title=Memorable deeds and sayings: one thousand tales from ancient Rome |year=2004 |translator-last=Walker |translator-first=Henry |isbn=0-87220-675-0 |location=Indianapolis |oclc=53231884 |publisher=Hackett |ref={{harvid|Val. Max.}} }}

{{refend}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

* {{EB1911|wstitle=Scipio|display=Scipio § ''Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus''|volume=24|pages=405–406 |noprescript=1}}

* {{cite book |author=Orosius |author-link=Orosius |title=History against the pagans |ref={{harvid|Oros.}} }}

{{refend}}