Lithium-ion battery: Difference between revisions

A '''lithium-ion''' or '''Li-ion battery''' is a type of [[rechargeable battery]] that uses the reversible [[Intercalation (chemistry)|intercalation]] of Li⁺ ions into [[electronically]] [[Electrical conductor|conducting]] solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial [[rechargeable batteries]], Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher [[specific energy]], higher [[energy density]], higher [[Energy efficiency (physics)|energy efficiency]], a longer [[cycle life]], and a longer [[durability|calendar life]]. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: withinduring the next 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.<ref>Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Tuning Properties to Enhance the Electrochemical Performance of Manganese-Based Layered Oxide Cathode. 2019. ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces. L.G. Chagas, S. Jeong, I. Hasa, S. Passerini. doi: 10.1021/acsami.9b03813.</ref>

Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy or power density.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lain|first1=Michael J.|last2=Brandon |first2=James|last3=Kendrick|first3=Emma |date=December 2019|title=Design Strategies for High Power vs. High Energy Lithium Ion Cells|journal=Batteries|language=en|volume=5|issue=4|pages=64 |doi=10.3390/batteries5040064|quote=Commercial lithium ion cells are now optimized for either high energy density or high power density. There is a trade-off in cell design between power and energy requirements.|doi-access=free}}</ref> Handheld electronics mostly use [[Lithium polymer battery|lithium polymer batteries]] (with a polymer gel as an electrolyte), a [[lithium cobalt oxide]] ({{chem|LiCoO|2}}) cathode material, and a [[graphite]] anode, which together offer high energy density.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mauger |first1=A |last2=Julien |first2=C.M. |date=28 June 2017 |title=Critical review on lithium-ion batteries: are they safe? Sustainable? |journal=Ionics |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=1933–1947 |doi=10.1007/s11581-017-2177-8 |s2cid=103350576 |url=https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01558209/file/Mauger_2017_Critical_review_on.pdf |access-date=26 July 2019 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302135828/https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01558209/file/Mauger_2017_Critical_review_on.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="E-electric20200604" /> [[Lithium iron phosphate]] ({{chem|LiFePO|4}}), [[lithium ion manganese oxide battery|lithium manganese oxide]] ({{chem|LiMn|2|O|4}} [[spinel]], or {{chem|Li|2|MnO|3}}-based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and [[lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide]] ({{chem|LiNiMnCoO|2}} or NMC) may offer longer life and a higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the [[electrification of transport]], one of the main technologies (combined with [[renewable energy]]) for reducing [[Greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Runsen |last2=Fujimori |first2=Shinichiro |date=2020-02-19 |title=The role of transport electrification in global climate change mitigation scenarios |journal=Environmental Research Letters |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=034019 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab6658 |bibcode=2020ERL....15c4019Z |s2cid=212866886 |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free |hdl=2433/245921 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured because they have flammable electrolytes that, if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safe lithium-ion batteries.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jechem.2020.10.017 | title=A review of lithium-ion battery safety concerns: The issues, strategies, and testing standards | year=2021 | last1=Chen | first1=Yuqing | last2=Kang | first2=Yuqiong | last3=Zhao | first3=Yun | last4=Wang | first4=Li | last5=Liu | first5=Jilei | last6=Li | first6=Yanxi | last7=Liang | first7=Zheng | last8=He | first8=Xiangming | last9=Li | first9=Xing | last10=Tavajohi | first10=Naser | last11=Li | first11=Baohua | journal=Journal of Energy Chemistry | volume=59 | pages=83–99 | s2cid=228845089 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2021JEnCh..59...83C }}</ref> Lithium-ion [[Solid-state battery|solid-state batteries]] are being developed to eliminate the flammable electrolyte. Improperly [[Battery recycling|recycled batteries]] can create toxic waste, especially from toxic metals, and are at risk of fire. Moreover, both [[lithium]] and other key strategic minerals used in batteries have significant issues at extraction, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being [[Conflict resource|conflict minerals]] such as [[cobalt]].{{not verified in body|date=April 2024}} Both [[Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries|environmental issues]] have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as [[Lithium iron phosphate]] lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries like [[Iron-air battery|iron-air batteries]].

In 1985, [[Akira Yoshino]] at [[Asahi Kasei]] Corporation discovered that petroleum coke, a less graphitized form of carbon, can reversibly intercalate Li-ions at a low potential of ~0.5 V relative to Li+ /Li without structural degradation.<ref>Yoshino, A., Sanechika, K. & Nakajima, T. Secondary battery. JP patent 1989293 (1985)</ref> Its structural stability originates from the amorphous carbon regions in petroleum coke serving as covalent joints to pin the layers together. Although the amorphous nature of petroleum coke limits capacity compared to graphite (~Li0.5C6, 0.186 &nbsp;Ah g–1), it became the first commercial intercalation anode for Li-ion batteries owing to its cycling stability.

Generally, the negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is [[graphite]] made from [[carbon]]. The positive electrode is typically a metal [[oxide]] or phosphate. The [[electrolyte]] is a [[lithium]] [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] in an [[organic compound|organic]] [[solvent]].<ref name="auto">Silberberg, M. (2006). ''Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change'', 4th Ed. New York (NY): McGraw-Hill Education. p. 935, {{ISBN|0077216504}}.</ref> The negative electrode (which is the [[anode]] when the cell is discharging) and the positive electrode (which is the [[cathode]] when discharging) are prevented from shorting by a separator.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Ao |last2=Yuen |first2=Anthony Chun Yin |last3=Wang |first3=Wei |last4=De Cachinho Cordeiro |first4=Ivan Miguel |last5=Wang |first5=Cheng |last6=Chen |first6=Timothy Bo Yuan |last7=Zhang |first7=Jin |last8=Chan |first8=Qing Nian |last9=Yeoh |first9=Guan Heng |date=January 2021 |title=A Review on Lithium-Ion Battery Separators towards Enhanced Safety Performances and Modelling Approaches |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=478 |doi=10.3390/molecules26020478 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=7831081 |pmid=33477513 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The electrodes are separatedconnected fromto externalthe electronicspowered withcircuit athrough piecetwo pieces of metal called a current collectorcollectors.<ref name="Zhu-2020" />

Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics.<ref name="Zhu-2020">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346987573|title=(PDF) A review of current collectors for lithium-ion batteries}}</ref>

Energy losses arising from electrical [[contact resistance]] at interfaces between [[electrode]] layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Zhai| first1=C| display-authors=etal| title=Interfacial electro-mechanical behaviour at rough surfaces| journal=Extreme Mechanics Letters| year=2016| volume=9| pages=422–429| doi=10.1016/j.eml.2016.03.021| bibcode=2016ExML....9..422Z| hdl=1959.4/unsworks_60452| url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02307660/file/Interfacial%20electromechanical%20EML%20authors%20version.pdf| access-date=31 August 2020| archive-date=19 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419021929/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02307660/file/Interfacial%20electromechanical%20EML%20authors%20version.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

==== (a) Layered Oxides ====

Similarly, LiCrO₂ shows reversible lithium (de)intercalation around 3.2 &nbsp;V with 170-270 170–270&nbsp;mAh/g.<ref>Electrochemical performance of CrOx cathode material for high energy density lithium batteries. 2023. Int J Electrochem Sci. 18/2, 44. D. Liu, X. Mu, R. Guo, J. Xie, G. Yin, P. Zuo. doi: 10.1016/j.ijoes.2023.01.020.</ref> However, its [[Charge cycle|cycle]] life is short, because of [[disproportionation]] of Cr⁴⁺ followed by translocation of Cr⁶⁺ into tetrahedral sites.<ref>Industrialization of Layered Oxide Cathodes for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Comparative Perspective. 2020. Energy Technol. 8/12, 13. J. Darga, J. Lamb, A. Manthiram. doi: 10.1002/ente.202000723.</ref> On the other hand, NaCrO₂ shows a much better cycling stability.<ref>K. Kubota, S. Kumakura, Y. Yoda, K. Kuroki, S. Komaba, Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8,

In addition to a lower (than cobalt) cost, nickel-oxide based materials benefit from the two-electron redox chemistry of Ni: in layered oxides comprising nickel (such as nickel-cobalt-manganese [[Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides|NCM]] and nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxides [[Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxides|NCA]]), Ni cycles between the oxidation states +2 and +4 (in one step between +3.5 and +4.3 V),<ref>Ohzuku, T., Ueda, A. & Nagayama, M. Electrochemistry and structural chemistry of {{chem2|LiNiO2}} (R3m) for 4 volt secondary lithium cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 140, 1862–1870 (1993).</ref><ref name=":1" /> cobalt- between +2 and +3, while Mn (usually >20%) and Al (typically, only 5% is needed)<ref>W. Li, E.M. Erickson, A. Manthiram, Nat. Energy 5 (2020) 26–34</ref> remain in +4 and 3+, respectively. Thus increasing the Ni content increases the cyclable charge. For example, NCM111 shows 160 &nbsp;mAh/g, while {{chem2|LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2}} (NCM811) and {{chem2|LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2}} (NCA) deliver a higher capacity of ~200 mAh/g.<ref>Nickel-rich layered oxide cathodes for lithium-ion batteries: Failure mechanisms and modification strategies. 2023. J Energy Storage. 58/. X. Zheng, Z. Cai, J. Sun, J. He, W. Rao, J. Wang, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106405 ; W. Li, E.M. Erickson, A. Manthiram, Nat. Energy 5 (2020) 26–34</ref>

It is worth mentioning so-called "lithium-rich" cathodes, that can be produced from traditional NCM ({{chem2|LiMO2}}, where M=Ni, Co, Mn) layered cathode materials upon cycling them to voltages/charges corresponding to Li:M<0.5. Under such conditions a new semi-reversible redox transition at a higher voltage with ca. 0.4-0.8 electrons/metal site charge appears. This transition involves non-binding electron orbitals centered mostly on O atoms. Despite significant initial interest, this phenomenon did not result in marketable products because of the fast structural degradation (O2 evolution and lattice rearrangements) of such "lithium-rich" phases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Xies|first1=Ying | title = Li-rich layered oxides: Structure, capacity and voltage fading mechanisms and solving strategies|journal=Particuology | date = 2022|volume=61|issue=4 |doi = 10.1016/j.partic.2021.05.011|pages=1–10|s2cid=237933219 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== (b) Cubic oxides (spinels) ====

[[Lithium ion manganese oxide battery|LiMn2O4LiMn₂O₄]] adopts a cubic lattice, which allows for three-dimensional lithium-ion diffusion.<ref name="Lithium-Ion Batteries">{{cite web |title=Lithium-Ion Batteries |url=http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/material-science-products.html?TablePage=106039040 |website=Sigma Aldrich |access-date=5 November 2015 |archive-date=5 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105023031/http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/material-science-products.html?TablePage=106039040 |url-status=live }}</ref> Manganese cathodes are attractive because manganese is less expensive than cobalt or nickel. The operating voltage of Li-LiMn2O4LiMn₂O₄ battery is 4 &nbsp;V, and ca. one lithium per two Mn ions can be reversibly extracted from the tetrahedral sites, resulting in a practical capacity of <130 mA h g–1. However, Mn³⁺ is not a stable oxidation state, as it tends to [[disproportionation|disporportionate]] into insoluble Mn⁴⁺ and soluble Mn²⁺.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="ReferenceD">A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry. 2020. Nature Communications. 11/1, 9. A. Manthiram. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0</ref> LiMn2O4LiMn₂O₄ can also intercalate more than 0.5 Li per Mn at a lower voltage around +3.0 V. However, this results in an irreversible [[phase transition]] due to [[Jahn-Teller]] distortion in Mn3+:t2g3eg1, as well as [[disproportionation]] and dissolution of Mn³⁺.

An important improvement of Mn spinel are related cubic structures of the [[LiMn1LiMn_1.5Ni05Ni_0.5O4]]5O₄ type, where Mn exists as Mn4+ and Ni cycles reversibly between the [[oxidation states]] +2 and +4.<ref name=":1" /> This materials show a reversible Li-ion capacity of ca. 135 &nbsp;mAh/g around 4.7 &nbsp;V. Although such high voltage is beneficial for increasing the [[specific energy]] of batteries, the adoption of such materials is currently hindered by the lack of suitable high-voltage electrolytes.<ref>Nickel-rich layered oxide cathodes for lithium-ion batteries: Failure mechanisms and modification strategies. 2023. J Energy Storage. 58/. X. Zheng, Z. Cai, J. Sun, J. He, W. Rao, J. Wang, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106405.</ref> In general, materials with a high [[nickel]] content are favored in 2023, because of the possibility of a 2-electron cycling of Ni between the [[oxidation states]] +2 and +4.

[[LiV₂O₄ (lithium vanadium oxide|LiV2O4]]) operates as a lower (ca. +3.0V0&nbsp;V) voltage than [[Lithium ion manganese oxide battery|LiMn2O4LiMn₂O₄]], suffers from similar durability issues, is more expensive, and thus is not considered of practical interest.<ref>de Picciotto, L. A. & Thackeray, M. M. Insertion/extraction reactions of

==== (c) Oxoanionic/olivins ====

| style="max-width:0;" | The dominant negative electrode material used in lithium -ion batteries, limited to a capacity of 372 &nbsp;mAh/g.<ref name="SiOC" />

| style="max-width:0;" | Low cost and good energy density. Graphite anodes can accommodate one lithium atom for every six carbon atoms. Charging rate is governed by the shape of the long, thin graphene sheets that constitute graphite. While charging, the lithium ions must travel to the outer edges of the graphene sheet before coming to rest (intercalating) between the sheets. The circuitous route takes so long that they encounter congestion around those edges.<ref name="nwu1404">{{cite web | url = http://electroiq.com/blog/2011/11/northwestern-researchers-advance-li-ion-battery-with-graphene-silicon-sandwich/ | title = Northwestern researchers advance Li-ion batteries with graphene-silicon sandwich {{pipe}} Solid State Technology |publisher=Electroiq.com | date = November 2011 |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315064945/http://electroiq.com/blog/2011/11/northwestern-researchers-advance-li-ion-battery-with-graphene-silicon-sandwich/ |archive-date=15 March 2018 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/aenm.201100426| title = In-Plane Vacancy-Enabled High-Power Si-Graphene Composite Electrode for Lithium-Ion Batteries| journal = Advanced Energy Materials| volume = 1| issue = 6| pages = 1079–1084| year = 2011| last1 = Zhao | first1 = X. | last2 = Hayner | first2 = C. M. | last3 = Kung | first3 = M. C. | last4 = Kung | first4 = H. H. | s2cid = 98312522| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2011AdEnM...1.1079Z}}</ref>

summarizes early research on silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells. In particular, Hong Li et al.<ref name="Solid State Ionics">{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=H.|last2=Huang|first2=X.|last3=Chenz|first3=L. C.|last4=Zhou|first4=G.|last5=Zhang|first5=Z. | title = The crystal structural evolution of nano-Si anode caused by lithium insertion and extraction at room temperature|journal=Solid State Ionics |volume=135|issue=1–4|pages=181–191 | doi = 10.1016/S0167-2738(00)00362-3|year=2000}}</ref> showed in 2000 that the electrochemical insertion of lithium ions in silicon [[nanoparticle]]s and silicon nanowires leads to the formation of an amorphous Li-Si alloy. The same year, Bo Gao and his doctoral advisor, Professor Otto Zhou described the cycling of electrochemical cells with anodes comprising silicon nanowires, with a reversible capacity ranging from at least approximately 900 to 1500 &nbsp;mAh/g.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gao|first1=B.|last2=Sinha|first2=S.|last3=Fleming|first3=L.|last4=Zhou|first4=O. | title = Alloy Formation in Nanostructured Silicon|journal=Advanced Materials|volume=13|issue=11|pages=816–819|

doi = 10.1002/1521-4095(200106)13:11<816::AID-ADMA816>3.0.CO;2-P|year=2001|bibcode=2001AdM....13..816G }}</ref>

Diamond-like carbon coatings can increase retention capacity by 40% and cycle life by 400% for lithium based batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zia |first1=Abdul Wasy |last2=Hussain |first2=Syed Asad |last3=Rasul |first3=Shahid |last4=Bae |first4=Dowon |last5=Pitchaimuthu |first5=Sudhagar |title=Progress in diamond-like carbon coatings for lithium-based batteries |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |date=November 2023 |volume=72 |pages=108803 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2023.108803|s2cid=261197954 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023JEnSt..7208803Z }}</ref>

[[lithium-ion flow battery|Lithium-ion flow batteries]] have been demonstrated that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Y. |last2=He |first2=P. |last3=Zhou |first3=H. |doi=10.1002/aenm.201200100 |title=Li-Redox Flow Batteries Based on Hybrid Electrolytes: At the Cross Road between Li-ion and Redox Flow Batteries |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=770–779 |year=2012 |bibcode=2012AdEnM...2..770W |s2cid=96707630}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=15 August 2016 |title=A carbon-free lithium-ion solid dispersion redox couple with low viscosity for redox flow batteries |journal=Journal of Power Sources|volume=323|pages=97–106|doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.05.033|last1=Qi |first1=Zhaoxiang|last2=Koenig|first2=Gary M.|bibcode=2016JPS...323...97Q|doi-access=free}}</ref>

As of 2014, the smallest Li-ion cell was [[pin]] -shaped with a diameter of 3.5mm5&nbsp;mm and a weight of 0.6g6&nbsp;g, made by [[Panasonic]].<ref>[http://www.telecompaper.com/news/panasonic-unveils-smallest-pin-shaped-lithium-ion-battery--1041159 Panasonic unveils "smallest" pin-shaped lithium ion battery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906081634/http://www.telecompaper.com/news/panasonic-unveils-smallest-pin-shaped-lithium-ion-battery--1041159 |date=6 September 2015 }}, Telecompaper, 6 October 2014</ref> A [[coin cell]] form factor is available for LiCoO₂ cells, usually designated with a "LiR" prefix.<ref>{{cite thesis |type=PhD |last1=Erol |first1=Salim |title=Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Analysis and Modeling of Lithium Cobalt Oxide/Carbon Batteries |date=5 January 2015 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270589441 |access-date=10 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="aa-lir2032">{{cite web |title=Rechargeable Li-Ion Button Battery: Serial LIR2032 |publisher=AA Portable Power Corp |url=http://www.batteryspace.com/productimages/aa/20060224/LIR2032_new1.pdf |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-date=9 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509064356/http://www.batteryspace.com/productimages/aa/20060224/LIR2032_new1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Batteries may be equipped with temperature sensors, heating/cooling systems, [[voltage regulator]] circuits, [[Tap changer|voltage taps]], and charge-state monitors. These components address safety risks like overheating and [[short circuit]]ing.<ref name="Znet:inside a battery pack">{{cite news|author=Goodwins, Rupert|date=17 August 2006|title=Inside a notebook battery pack|url=httphttps://www.zdnet.com/article/inside-a-notebook-battery-pack-3039281143/|work=ZDNet|access-date=6 June 2013|archive-date=24 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724093725/http://www.zdnet.com/inside-a-notebook-battery-pack-3039281143/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.2&nbsp;V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6&nbsp;V. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.7&nbsp;V nominal voltage with a 4.2&nbsp;V maximum while charging. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry (i.e., charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2&nbsp;V is reached in the cell and continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero). Typically, the charge is terminated at 3% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. In 2015 researchers demonstrated a small 600 &nbsp;mAh capacity battery charged to 68 percent capacity in two minutes and a 3,000 &nbsp;mAh battery charged to 48 percent capacity in five minutes. The latter battery has an energy density of 620 &nbsp;W·h/L. The device employed heteroatoms bonded to graphite molecules in the anode.<ref>{{Cite web|title = New battery tech gives 10 hours of talk time after only 5 minutes on charge|url = http://www.gizmag.com/huawei-fast-charging-li-ion-batteries/40421|website = www.gizmag.com|access-date = 3 December 2015|first = Aaron|last = Turpen|date = 16 November 2015|archive-date = 8 December 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208232306/http://www.gizmag.com/huawei-fast-charging-li-ion-batteries/40421/|url-status = live}}</ref> Recent advancements show that single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) enhance the mechanical strength, electrical connectivity, and capacity retention of the electrodes, maintaining active particles' electrical and electrochemical activity during cycles. This also results in a shorter charging time for a silicon anode battery with SWCNTs, with the time needed falling to less than 15 minutes to charge from 10% to 90% capacity. <ref>{{Cite web |title=High-performance graphene nanotubes batteries for EVs |url=https://tuball.com/nanotubes-for/high-performance-ev-batteries |access-date=20 June 2024 |website=[[Tuball.com]]|date=21 May 2021 }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dressler |first1=R. A. |last2=Dahn |first2=J. R. |date=March 2024 |title=Optimization of Si-containing and SiO based Anodes with Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for High Energy Density Applications |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ad30dc |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=171 |issue=3 |pages=030520 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/ad30dc |bibcode=2024JElS..171c0520D |issn=1945-7111|doi-access=free }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dressler |first1=R. A. |last2=Dahn |first2=J. R. |date=2024-03-28 |title=Investigation of The Failure Mechanisms of Li-Ion Pouch Cells with Si/Graphite Composite Negative Electrodes and Single Wall Carbon Nanotube Conducting Additive |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1945-7111/ad3398 |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |volume=171 |issue=3 |pages=030532 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/ad3398 |bibcode=2024JElS..171c0532D |issn=0013-4651|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from 1991 to 2005 the energy capacity per price of lithium -ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0.3 &nbsp;W·h per dollar to over 3 &nbsp;W·h per dollar.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-01-16/get-ready-for-life-without-oil | website = bloombergview.com | first = Noah | last = Smith | title = Get Ready For Life Without Oil | date = 16 January 2015 | access-date = 31 July 2015 | archive-date = 11 July 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150711154951/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-01-16/get-ready-for-life-without-oil | url-status = live }}</ref> In the period from 2011 to 2017, progress has averaged 7.5% annually.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-24/tesla-s-newest-promises-break-the-laws-of-batteries|title=Tesla's Newest Promises Break the Laws of Batteries|last1=Randall|first1=Tom|date=24 November 2017|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=13 February 2018|last2=Lippert|first2=John|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162559/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-24/tesla-s-newest-promises-break-the-laws-of-batteries|url-status=live}}</ref>

Efforts to increase energy density contributed significantly to cost reduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziegler |first1=Micah S. |last2=Song |first2=Juhyun |last3=Trancik |first3=Jessika E. |date=2021-12-09 |title=Determinants of lithium-ion battery technology cost decline |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=6074–6098 |doi=10.1039/D1EE01313K |s2cid=244514877 |issn=1754-5706|doi-access=free |hdl=1721.1/145588 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Energy density can also be increased by improvements in the chemistry if the cell, for instance, by full or partial replacement of graphite with silicon. Silicon anodes enhanced with graphene nanotubes to eliminate the premature degradation of silicon open the door to reaching record-breaking battery energy density of up to 350 &nbsp;Wh/kg and lowering EV prices to be competitive with ICEs.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Predtechenskiy |firstfirst1=Mikhail R. |last2=Khasin |first2=Alexander A. |last3=Smirnov |first3=Sergei N. |last4=Bezrodny |first4=Alexander E. |last5=Bobrenok |first5=Oleg F. |last6=Dubov |first6=Dmitry Yu. |last7=Kosolapov |first7=Andrei G. |last8=Lyamysheva |first8=Ekaterina G. |last9=Muradyan |first9=Vyacheslav E. |last10=Saik |first10=Vladimir O. |last11=Shinkarev |first11=Vasiliy V. |last12=Chebochakov |first12=Dmitriy S. |last13=Galkov |first13=Mikhail S. |last14=Karpunin |first14=Ruslan V. |last15=Verkhovod |first15=Timofey D. |date=2022-07-01 |title=New Perspectives in SWCNT Applications: Tuball SWCNTs. Part 2. New Composite Materials through Augmentation with Tuball. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667056922000323 |journal=Carbon Trends |volume=8 |pages=100176 |doi=10.1016/j.cartre.2022.100176 |issn=2667-0569|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CarbT...800176P }}</ref>

The table below shows the result of an experimental evaluation of a "high-energy" type 3.0Ah0&nbsp;Ah 18650 NMC cell in 2021, round-trip efficiency which compared the energy going into the cell and energy extracted from the cell from 100% (4.2v) SoC to 0% SoC (cut off 2.0v). A roundtrip efficiency is the percent of energy that can be used relative to the energy that went into charging the battery.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bobanac |first1=Vedran |last2=Basic |first2=Hrvoje |last3=Pandzic |first3=Hrvoje |title=IEEE EUROCON 2021 - 19th International Conference on Smart Technologies |date=2021-07-06 |chapter=Determining Lithium-ion Battery One-way Energy Efficiencies: Influence of C-rate and Coulombic Losses |chapter-url=https://animation.fer.hr/images/50036152/EUROCON%202021_Determining_Lithium-ion_Battery_One-way_Energy_Efficiencies_Influence_of_C-rate_and_Coulombic_Losses.pdf |publisher=IEEE |pages=385–389 |doi=10.1109/EUROCON52738.2021.9535542 |isbn=978-1-6654-3299-3 |s2cid=237520703 |access-date=22 June 2023 |archive-date=22 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622012159/https://animation.fer.hr/images/50036152/EUROCON%202021_Determining_Lithium-ion_Battery_One-way_Energy_Efficiencies_Influence_of_C-rate_and_Coulombic_Losses.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The lifespan of a lithium-ion battery is typically defined as the number of full charge-discharge cycles to reach a failure threshold in terms of capacity loss or impedance rise. Manufacturers' datasheet typically uses the word "cycle life" to specify lifespan in terms of the number of cycles to reach 80% of the rated battery capacity.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.ineltro.ch/media/downloads/SAAItem/45/45958/36e3e7f3-2049-4adb-a2a7-79c654d92915.pdf | title = Lithium-ion Battery DATA SHEET Battery Model : LIR18650 2600&nbsp;mAh | access-date = 3 May 2019 | archive-date = 3 May 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190503022927/https://www.ineltro.ch/media/downloads/SAAItem/45/45958/36e3e7f3-2049-4adb-a2a7-79c654d92915.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> Simply storing lithium-ion batteries in the charged state also reduces their capacity (the amount of cyclable {{chem2|Li+}}) and increases the cell resistance (primarily due to the continuous growth of the solid electrolyte interface on the [[anode]]). Calendar life is used to represent the whole life cycle of battery involving both the cycle and inactive storage operations. Battery cycle life is affected by many different stress factors including temperature, discharge current, charge current, and state of charge ranges (depth of discharge).<ref name="Cycle-life">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.134| title = Cycle-life model for graphite-LiFePO4 cells| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 196| issue = 8| pages = 3942–3948| year = 2011| last1 = Wang | first1 = J.| last2 = Liu | first2 = P.| last3 = Hicks-Garner | first3 = J.| last4 = Sherman | first4 = E.| last5 = Soukiazian | first5 = S.| last6 = Verbrugge | first6 = M.| last7 = Tataria | first7 = H.| last8 = Musser | first8 = J.| last9 = Finamore | first9 = P.| bibcode = 2011JPS...196.3942W}}</ref><ref name="Saxena-2016">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.07.057| title = Cycle life testing and modeling of graphite/LiCoO2 cells under different state of charge ranges| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 327| pages = 394–400| year = 2016| last1 = Saxena | first1 = S.| last2 = Hendricks | first2 = C.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| bibcode = 2016JPS...327..394S}}</ref> Batteries are not fully charged and discharged in real applications such as smartphones, laptops and electric cars and hence defining battery life via full discharge cycles can be misleading. To avoid this confusion, researchers sometimes use cumulative discharge<ref name="Cycle-life"/> defined as the total amount of charge (Ah) delivered by the battery during its entire life or equivalent full cycles,<ref name="Saxena-2016" /> which represents the summation of the partial cycles as fractions of a full charge-discharge cycle. Battery degradation during storage is affected by temperature and battery state of charge (SOC) and a combination of full charge (100% SOC) and high temperature (usually >&nbsp;50&nbsp;°C) can result in a sharp capacity drop and gas generation.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.3390/en11123295| title = Derating Guidelines for Lithium-Ion Batteries| journal = Energies| volume = 11| issue = 12| page = 3295| year = 2018| last1 = Sun | first1 = Y.|last2 = Saxena | first2 = S.| last3 = Pecht | first3 = M.| doi-access = free| hdl = 1903/31442| hdl-access = free}}</ref> Multiplying the battery cumulative discharge by the rated nominal voltage gives the total energy delivered over the life of the battery. From this one can calculate the cost per kWh of the energy (including the cost of charging).

# Reduction of the organic carbonate electrolyte at the anode, which results in the growth of Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI), where {{chem2|Li+}} ions get irreversibly trapped, i.e. loss of lithium inventory. This shows as increased ohmic impedance and reduced Ah charge. At constant temperature, the SEI film thickness (and therefore, the SEI resistance and the loss in cyclable {{chem2|Li+}}) increases as a square root of the time spent in the charged state. The number of cycles is not a useful metric in characterizing this degradation pathway. Under high temperatures or in the presence of a mechanical damage the electrolyte reduction can proceed explosively.

# Loss of the (negative or positive) electroactive materials due to dissolution (e.g. of {{chem2|Mn(3+)}} species), cracking, exfoliation, detachment or even simple regular volume change during cycling. It shows up as both charge and power fade (increased resistance). Both positive and negative electrode materials are subject to fracturing due to the volumetric strain of repeated (de)lithiation cycles.

# Structural degradation of cathode materials, such as {{chem2|Li+/Ni2Ni(2+)}} cation mixing in nickel-rich materials. This manifests as “electrode saturation", loss of cyclable Ah charge and as a "voltage fade".

Most studies of lithium-ion battery aging have been done at elevated (50–60&nbsp;°C) temperatures in order to complete the experiments sooner. Under these storage conditions, fully charged nickel-cobalt-aluminum and lithium-iron phosphate cells lose ca. 20% of their cyclable charge in 1–2 years. It is believed that the aforementioned anode aging is the most important degradation pathway in these cases. On the other hand, manganese-based cathodes show a (ca. 20–50%) faster degradation under these conditions, probably due to the additional mechanism of Mn ion dissolution.<ref name=Vermeer/> At 25&nbsp;°C the degradation of lithium-ion batteries seems to follow the same pathway(s) as the degradation at 50&nbsp;°C, but with half the speed.<ref name=Vermeer/> In other words, based on the limited extrapolated experimental data, lithium-ion batteries are expected to lose irreversibly ca. 20% of their cyclable charge in 3–5 years or 1000–2000 cycles at 25&nbsp;°C.<ref name=WHOKNOWS1/> Lithium-ion batteries with titanate anodes do not suffer from SEI growth, and last longer (>5000 cycles) than graphite anodes. However, in complete cells other degradation mechanisms (i.e. the dissolution of Mn3{{chem2|Mn(3+)}} and the Ni3{{chem2|Ni(2+)/Li+}} place exchange, decomposition of PVDF binder and particle detachment) show up after 1000–2000 days, and the use titanate anode does not improve full cell durability in practice.

(1)| The negative (anode) SEI layer, a passivation coating formed by electrolyte (such as [[ethylene carbonate]], [[dimethyl carbonate]] but not [[propylene carbonate]]) reduction products, is essential for providing Li⁺ ion conduction, while preventing electron transfer (and, thus, further solvent reduction). Under typical operating conditions, the negative SEI layer reaches a fixed thickness after the first few charges (formation cycles), allowing the device to operate for years. However, at elevated temperatures or due to mechanical detachment of the negative SEI, this [[exothermic]] electrolyte reduction can proceed violently and lead to an explosion via several reactions.<ref name="Voelker-2014">{{Cite news|url = http://www.rdmag.com/articles/2014/04/trace-degradation-analysis-lithium-ion-battery-components|title = Trace Degradation Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Components|last = Voelker|first = Paul|date = 22 April 2014|work = R&D|access-date = 4 April 2015|archive-date = 28 April 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150428160314/http://www.rdmag.com/articles/2014/04/trace-degradation-analysis-lithium-ion-battery-components|url-status = live}}</ref> Lithium-ion batteries are prone to capacity fading over hundreds<ref>{{Cite web | date = 2011-08-07 | title = How to prolong your cell phone battery's life span | url = http://www.phonedog.com/2011/8/7/how-to-prolong-your-cell-phone-battery-s-life-span|access-date=2020-07-25|website=phonedog.com}}</ref> to thousands of cycles. Formation of the SEI consumes lithium ions, reducing the overall charge and discharge efficiency of the electrode material.<ref>Alexander K Suttman.(2011).Lithium Ion Battery Aging Experiments and Algorithm Development for Life Estimation. Published by The Ohio State University and OhioLINK</ref> as a decomposition product, various SEI-forming additives can be added to the electrolyte to promote the formation of a more stable SEI that remains selective for lithium ions to pass through while blocking electrons.<ref>Matthew B. Pinson1 and Martin Z. Bazant. Theory of SEI Formation in Rechargeable Batteries: Capacity Fade, Accelerated Aging and Lifetime Prediction. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139</ref> Cycling cells at high temperature or at fast rates can promote the degradation of Li-ion batteries due in part to the degradation of the SEI or [[lithium]] plating.<ref>{{Cite web | url = https://cleantechnica.com/2019/12/16/new-data-shows-heat-fast-charging-responsible-for-more-battery-degradation-than-age-or-mileage/ | title = New Data Shows Heat & Fast-Charging Responsible For More Battery Degradation Than Age Or Mileage | date = 16 December 2019 | website = CleanTechnica | access-date = 20 December 2019 | archive-date = 27 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210427105747/https://cleantechnica.com/2019/12/16/new-data-shows-heat-fast-charging-responsible-for-more-battery-degradation-than-age-or-mileage/ | url-status = live }}</ref> Charging Li-ion batteries beyond 80% can drastically accelerate battery degradation.<ref>{{Cite web| url = https://www.howtogeek.com/423451/how-ios-13-will-protect-your-iphones-battery-by-charging-to-80/amp/| title = How iOS 13 Will Save Your iPhone's Battery (by Not Fully Charging It)| website = www.howtogeek.com| date = 4 June 2019| access-date = 12 January 2020| archive-date = 7 April 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200407151116/https://www.howtogeek.com/423451/how-ios-13-will-protect-your-iphones-battery-by-charging-to-80/amp/| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techadvisor.co.uk/how-to/mobile-phone/charge-phone-properly-3619623/|title=Battery charging tips and tricks for prolonged life|first=Simon|last=Jary|website=Tech Advisor|access-date=12 January 2020|archive-date=12 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112202751/https://www.techadvisor.co.uk/how-to/mobile-phone/charge-phone-properly-3619623/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine| url = https://www.wired.co.uk/article/how-to-improve-battery-life-tips-myths-smartphones| title = Here's the truth behind the biggest (and dumbest) battery myths| first = Matt| last = Reynolds| magazine = Wired UK| date = 4 August 2018| via = www.wired.co.uk| access-date = 12 January 2020| archive-date = 12 January 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200112202732/https://www.wired.co.uk/article/how-to-improve-battery-life-tips-myths-smartphones| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = https://www.eeworldonline.com/why-you-should-stop-fully-charging-your-smartphone-now/ | title = Why You Should Stop Fully Charging Your Smartphone Now | date = 9 November 2015 | website = Electrical Engineering News and Products | access-date = 12 January 2020 | archive-date = 12 January 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200112202748/https://www.eeworldonline.com/why-you-should-stop-fully-charging-your-smartphone-now/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

Batteries generate heat when being charged or discharged, especially at high currents. Large battery packs, such as those used in electric vehicles, are generally equipped with thermal management systems that maintain a temperature between {{convert|15|C|F}} and {{convert|35|C|F}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jaguemont|first1=Joris|last2=Van Mierlo|first2=Joeri|date=October 2020|title=A comprehensive review of future thermal management systems for battery-electrified vehicles|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352152X20301754|journal=Journal of Energy Storage|language=en|volume=31|pages=101551|doi=10.1016/j.est.2020.101551|bibcode=2020JEnSt..3101551J |s2cid=219934100|access-date=28 November 2021|archive-date=24 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224221518/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352152X20301754|url-status=live}}</ref> Pouch and cylindrical cell temperatures depend linearly on the discharge current.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1149/2.0561506jes| title=Influence of Cell Design on Temperatures and Temperature Gradients in Lithium-Ion Cells: An in Operando Study| journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society| volume=162| issue=6| page=A921| year=2015| last1=Waldmann| first1=T.| last2=Bisle| first2=G.| last3=Hogg| first3=B.-I.| last4=Stumpp |first4=S.| last5=Danzer |first5=M. A.| last6=Kasper| first6=M.| last7=Axmann| first7=P.| last8=Wohlfahrt-Mehrens| first8=M.| doi-access=free}}.</ref> Poor internal ventilation may increase temperatures. For large batteries consisting of multiple cells, non-uniform temperatures can lead to non-uniform and accelerated degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malabet |first=Hernando |date=2021 |title=Electrochemical and Post-Mortem Degradation Analysis of Parallel-Connected Lithium-Ion Cells with Non-Uniform Temperature Distribution |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |volume=168 |issue=10 |page=100507 |doi=10.1149/1945-7111/ac2a7c |bibcode=2021JElS..168j0507G |s2cid=244186025 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In contrast, the calendar life of [[Lithium iron phosphate battery|{{chem|LiFePO|4}}]] cells is not affected by high charge states.{{sfn|Andrea|2010|p=9}}<ref>{{Cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.08.017| title=Modeling capacity fade in lithium-ion cells| journal=Journal of Power Sources| volume=140| issue=1| pages=157–161| year=2005| last1=Liaw| first1=B. Y.| last2=Jungst| first2=R. G.| last3=Nagasubramanian| first3=G.| last4=Case| first4=H. L.| last5=Doughty| first5=D. H.| bibcode=2005JPS...140..157L}}</ref>

(2)| Lithium plating is a phenomenon in which certain conditions lead to metallic lithium forming and depositing onto the surface of the battery’s anode rather than intercalating within the anode material’s structure. Low temperatures, overcharging and high charging rates can exacerbate this occurrence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Xin-Bing |last2=Zhang |first2=Rui |last3=Zhao |first3=Chen-Zi |last4=Zhang |first4=Qiang |date=2017-08-09 |title=Toward Safe Lithium Metal Anode in Rechargeable Batteries: A Review |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00115 |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=117 |issue=15 |pages=10403–10473 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00115 |pmid=28753298 |issn=0009-2665 |access-date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105034149/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00115 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Wu |last2=Wang |first2=Jiulin |last3=Ding |first3=Fei |last4=Chen |first4=Xilin |last5=Nasybulin |first5=Eduard |last6=Zhang |first6=Yaohui |last7=Zhang |first7=Ji-Guang |date=2014-01-23 |title=Lithium metal anodes for rechargeable batteries |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/ee/c3ee40795k |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=513–537 |doi=10.1039/C3EE40795K |issn=1754-5706 |access-date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105034150/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2014/ee/c3ee40795k |url-status=live }}</ref> During these conditions, lithium ions may not intercalate uniformly into the anode material and form layers of lithium ion on the surface in the form of [[Dendrite (crystal)|dendrites]]. Dendrites are tiny needle-like structures that can accumulate and pierce the separator, causing a [[short circuit]] can initiate [[thermal runaway]].<ref name="Voelker-2014" /> This cascade of rapid and uncontrolled energy can lead to battery swelling, increased heat, fires and or explosions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lyu |first1=Peizhao |last2=Liu |first2=Xinjian |last3=Qu |first3=Jie |last4=Zhao |first4=Jiateng |last5=Huo |first5=Yutao |last6=Qu |first6=Zhiguo |last7=Rao |first7=Zhonghao |date=2020-10-01 |title=Recent advances of thermal safety of lithium ion battery for energy storage |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405829720302646 |journal=Energy Storage Materials |volume=31 |pages=195–220 |doi=10.1016/j.ensm.2020.06.042 |bibcode=2020EneSM..31..195L |s2cid=225545635 |issn=2405-8297}}</ref> Additionally, this dendritic growth can lead to side reactions with the electrolyte and convert the fresh plated lithium into electrochemically inert dead lithium.<ref name=":0" /> Moreover, the dendritic growth brought on by lithium plating can degrade the lithium-ion battery and lead to poor cycling efficiency and safety hazards. Some ways to mitigate lithium plating and the dendritic growth is by controlling the temperature, optimizing the charging conditions, and improving the materials used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lei |first1=Yanxiang |last2=Zhang |first2=Caiping |last3=Gao |first3=Yang |last4=Li |first4=Tong |date=2018-10-01 |title=Charging Optimization of Lithium-ion Batteries Based on Capacity Degradation Speed and Energy Loss |journal=Energy Procedia |series=Cleaner Energy for Cleaner Cities |volume=152 |pages=544–549 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2018.09.208 |s2cid=115875535 |issn=1876-6102|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018EnPro.152..544L }}</ref> In terms of temperature, the ideal charging temperature is anywhere between 0&nbsp;°C to 45&nbsp;°C, but also room temperature is ideal (20&nbsp;°C to 25&nbsp;°C).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bandhauer |first1=Todd M. |last2=Garimella |first2=Srinivas |last3=Fuller |first3=Thomas F. |date=2011-01-25 |title=A Critical Review of Thermal Issues in Lithium-Ion Batteries |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=158 |issue=3 |pages=R1 |doi=10.1149/1.3515880 |s2cid=97367770 |issn=1945-7111|doi-access=free }}</ref> Advancements in materials innovation requires much [[Research in lithium-ion batteries|research and development]] in the electrolyte selection and improving the anode resistance to plating. One such materials innovation would be to add other compounds to the electrolyte like fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) to form a rich LiF SEI.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xue-Qiang |last2=Cheng |first2=Xin-Bing |last3=Chen |first3=Xiang |last4=Yan |first4=Chong |last5=Zhang |first5=Qiang |date=March 2017 |title=Fluoroethylene Carbonate Additives to Render Uniform Li Deposits in Lithium Metal Batteries |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.201605989 |journal=Advanced Functional Materials |language=en |volume=27 |issue=10 |doi=10.1002/adfm.201605989 |s2cid=99575315 |issn=1616-301X |access-date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105034150/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.201605989 |url-status=live }}</ref> Another novel method would be to coat the separator in a protective shield that essentially “kills” the lithium ions before it can form these dendrites.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Sheng S. |last2=Fan |first2=Xiulin |last3=Wang |first3=Chunsheng |date=2018-06-12 |title=Preventing lithium dendrite-related electrical shorting in rechargeable batteries by coating separator with a Li-killing additive |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2018/ta/c8ta02804d |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |language=en |volume=6 |issue=23 |pages=10755–10760 |doi=10.1039/C8TA02804D |issn=2050-7496 |access-date=5 November 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231105034150/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2018/ta/c8ta02804d |url-status=live }}</ref>

(3)| Certain manganese containing cathodes can degrade by the Hunter degradation mechanism resulting in manganese dissolution and reduction on the anode.<ref name="Voelker-2014" /> By the Hunter mechanism for {{chem|LiMn|2|O|4}}, hydrofluoric acid catalyzes the loss of manganese through disproportionation of a surface trivalent manganese to form a tetravalent manganese and a soluble divalent manganese:<ref name="Voelker-2014" />

(4)| Cation mixing is the main reason for the capacity decline of the Ni-rich cathode materials. As the Ni content in the NCM layered material increases the capacity will increase, which is the result of two-electron of Ni2Ni<sup>2+</Ni4sup>/Ni⁴⁺ redox reaction (please note, that Mn remains electrochemically inactive in the 4+ state) but, increasing the Ni content results in a significant degree of mixing of Ni2Ni²⁺ and Li⁺ cations due to the closeness of their ionic radius (Li⁺ =0.076&nbsp;nm and Ni2Ni²⁺ =0.069&nbsp;nm). During charge/discharge cycling, the Li⁺ in the cathode cannot be easily be extracted and the existence of Ni2Ni²⁺ in the Li layer blocks the diffusion of Li⁺, resulting in both capacity loss and increased ohmic resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Geldasa FT, Kebede MA, Shura MW, Hone FG |date=2022 |title=Identifying surface degradation, mechanical failure, and thermal instability phenomena of high energy density Ni-rich NCM cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries: a review |journal=RSC Advances |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=5891–5909 |doi=10.1039/d1ra08401a|pmid=35424548 |pmc=8982025 |bibcode=2022RSCAd..12.5891G }}</ref>

(5)| Discharging below {{val|2 |u=V}} can also result in the dissolution of the copper anode current collector and, thus, in catastrophic internal short-circuiting on recharge.

The [[IEEE]] standard 1188–1996 recommends replacing Lithiumlithium-ion batteries in an electric vehicle, when their charge capacity drops to 80% of the nominal value.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Pang XX, Zhong S, Wang YL, Yang W, Zheng WZ, Sun GZ |date=2022 |title=A Review on the Prediction of Health State and Serving Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries |journal=Chemical Record |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=e202200131 |doi=10.1002/tcr.202200131|pmid=35785467 |s2cid=250282891 }}</ref> In what follows, we shall use the 20% capacity loss as a comparison point between different studies. We shall note, nevertheless, that the linear model of degradation (the constant % of charge loss per cycle or per calendar time) is not always applicable, and that a “knee point”, observed as a change of the slope, and related to the change of the main degradation mechanism, is often observed.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Li AG, West AC, Preindl M |date=2022 |title=Towards unified machine learning characterization of lithium-ion battery degradation across multiple levels: A critical review |journal=Applied Energy |volume=316 |page=9|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119030 |bibcode=2022ApEn..31619030L |s2cid=246554618 }}</ref>

The problem of lithium-ion battery safety has been recognized even before these batteries were first commercially released in 1991. The two main reasons for lithium-ion battery fires and explosions are related to processes on the negative electrode (cathode). During a normal battery charge lithium ions intercalate into graphite. However, if the charge is forced to go too fast (or at a too low temperature) lithium metal starts plating on the anode, and the resulting dendrites can penetrate the battery separator, internally short-circuit the cell, resulting in high electric current, heating and ignition. In other mechanism, an explosive reaction between the charge anode material (LiC6LiC₆) and the solvent (liquid organic carbonate) occurs even at open circuit, provided that the anode temperature exceeds a certain threshold above 70&nbsp;°C.<ref>On the Decomposition of Carbonate-Based Lithium-Ion Battery Electrolytes Studied Using Operando Infrared Spectroscopy. 2018. J Electrochem Soc. 165/16, A4051-A7. N. Saqib, C.M. Ganim, A.E. Shelton, J.M. Porter. doi: 10.1149/2.1051816jes.</ref>

Lithium-ion cells are susceptible to stress by voltage ranges outside of safe ones between 2.5 and 3.65/4.1/4.2 or 4.35V35&nbsp;V (depending on the components of the cell). Exceeding this voltage range results in premature aging and in safety risks due to the reactive components in the cells.<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jct.2011.09.005| title = Lithium ion battery production| journal = The Journal of Chemical Thermodynamics| volume = 46| pages = 80–85| year = 2012| last1 = Väyrynen | first1 = A. | last2 = Salminen | first2 = J. | bibcode = 2012JChTh..46...80V}}</ref> When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry may drain the battery below its shutoff voltage; normal chargers may then be useless since the [[battery management system]] (BMS) may retain a record of this battery (or charger) "failure". Many types of lithium-ion cells cannot be charged safely below 0&nbsp;°C,<ref>{{cite web|title=Lithium-ion Battery Charging Basics|url=http://www.powerstream.com/li.htm|publisher=PowerStream Technologies|access-date=4 December 2010|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428214636/http://www.powerstream.com/li.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> as this can result in plating of lithium on the anode of the cell, which may cause complications such as internal short-circuit paths.{{citation needed | date = July 2020}}

These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated. Further, these features increase costs compared to [[Nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride batteries]], which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device and a back-up pressure valve.<ref name="WinterBrodd2004"/> Contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices. Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e.g., prismatic high current cells cannot be equipped with a vent or thermal interrupt. High current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent. Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits.<ref>{{citationcite neededjournal |last1=Liu date|first1=Xingjiang |last2=Kusawake |first2=Hiroaki |last3=Kuwajima |first3=Saburo |title=Preparation of a PVdF-HFP/polyethylene composite gel electrolyte with shutdown function for lithium-ion secondary battery |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=July 20202001 |volume=97-98 |pages=661–663 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00583-3|bibcode=2001JPS....97..661L }}</ref>

Replacing the [[lithium cobalt oxide]] positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP) improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity. As of 2006, these safer lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in [[electric car]]s and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/01/opinion/01cringely.html | work=The New York Times | title=Safety Last | first=Robert X. | last=Cringely | date=1 September 2006 | access-date=14 April 2010 | archive-date=4 July 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704053530/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/01/opinion/01cringely.html? | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2016, an LFP-based energy storage system was chosen to be installed in [[Paiyun Lodge]] on [[Yu Shan|Mt.Jade (Yushan)]] (the highest lodge in [[Taiwan]]). As of June 2024, the system was still operating safely.<ref name="Batteries10(2024)202">{{cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Hsien-Ching |title=The Long-Term Usage of an Off-Grid Photovoltaic System with a Lithium-Ion Battery-Based Energy Storage System on High Mountains: A Case Study in Paiyun Lodge on Mt. Jade in Taiwan |journal=Batteries |date=13 June 2024 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=202 |doi=10.3390/batteries10060202|doi-access=free |arxiv=2405.04225 }}</ref>

Li-ion battery elements including iron, copper, nickel and cobalt are considered safe for [[incinerators]] and [[landfills]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Robert L. |date=2006-08-22 |title=Lithium ion batteries: High-tech's latest mountain of waste |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2482910/lithium-ion-batteries--high-tech-s-latest-mountain-of-waste.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Computerworld |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422205547/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2482910/lithium-ion-batteries--high-tech-s-latest-mountain-of-waste.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} These metals can be [[recycle]]d,<ref name="Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries">{{cite book|last1=Hanisch|first1=Christian|title=Handbook of Clean Energy Systems – Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries|last2=Diekmann|first2=Jan|last3=Stieger|first3=Alexander|last4=Haselrieder |first4=Wolfgang|last5=Kwade|first5=Arno|date=2015|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd|isbn=9781118991978 |editor1-last=Yan|editor1-first=Jinyue|edition=5 Energy Storage|pages=2865–2888|chapter=27 |doi=10.1002/9781118991978.hces221|editor2-last=Cabeza|editor2-first=Luisa F.|editor3-last=Sioshansi |editor3-first=Ramteen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Hanisch|first1=Christian|title=Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries|url=http://www.lion-eng.de/images/pdf/Recycling-of-Lithium-Ion-Batteries-LionEngineering.pdf|access-date=22 July 2015|website=Presentation on Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries|publisher=Lion Engineering GmbH|archive-date=26 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170226171944/http://www.lion-eng.de/images/pdf/Recycling-of-Lithium-Ion-Batteries-LionEngineering.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> usually by burning away the other materials,<ref name="Morris">{{cite web|last1=Morris|first1=Charles|date=27 August 2020|title=Li-Cycle recovers usable battery-grade materials from shredded Li-ion batteries|url=https://chargedevs.com/features/li-cycle-recovers-usable-battery-grade-materials-from-shredded-li-ion-batteries/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916100246/https://chargedevs.com/features/li-cycle-recovers-usable-battery-grade-materials-from-shredded-li-ion-batteries/|archive-date=16 September 2020|access-date=31 October 2020 |website=chargedevs.com|quote=thermally treat them—they're burning off plastic and electrolyte in the batteries and are not really focused on the material recovery. It's mainly the cobalt, the nickel and the copper that they can get via that method. Lithium-ion is quite a bit more complex, than lead–acid}}</ref> but mining generally remains cheaper than recycling;<ref name="Alternative Energy Resources">{{cite web|author=Kamyamkhane, Vaishnovi |title=Are lithium batteries sustainable to the environment?|url=http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html?|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917012206/http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html|archive-date=17 September 2011|access-date=3 June 2013 |publisher=Alternative Energy Resources}}</ref> recycling may cost $3/kg,<ref>{{cite web|date=27–28 August 2019|title=R&D Insights for Extreme Fast Charging of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles|url=https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/extreme_fast_charging.pdf|publisher=[[NREL]]|page=6|quote=Some participants paid $3/kg to recycle batteries at end of life|access-date=23 October 2020|archive-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018040107/https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/extreme_fast_charging.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and in 2019 less than 5% of lithium -ion batteries were being recycled.<ref name="Jacoby-2019">{{Cite news|last=Jacoby|first=Mitch|date=July 14, 2019|title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries|work=Chemical & Engineering News|url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28|access-date=29 October 2021|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029214517/https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2018, the recycling yield was increased significantly, and recovering lithium, manganese, aluminum, the organic solvents of the electrolyte, and graphite is possible at industrial scales.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ATZ WORLDWIDE|url=https://uacj-automobile.com/ebook/atz_worldwide2018/index.html#p=10|access-date=14 June 2019|website=uacj-automobile.com|archive-date=11 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711153343/https://uacj-automobile.com/ebook/atz_worldwide2018/index.html#p=10|url-status=live}}</ref> The most expensive metal involved in the construction of the cell is cobalt. [[Lithium]] is less expensive than other metals used and is rarely recycled,<ref name="Morris" /> but recycling could prevent a future shortage.<ref name="Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries" />

Extraction of raw materials for lithium -ion batteries may present dangers to local people, especially land-based indigenous populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agusdinata |first1=Datu Buyung |last2=Liu |first2=Wenjuan |last3=Eakin |first3=Hallie |last4=Romero |first4=Hugo |date=2018-11-27 |title=Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=123001 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1 |bibcode=2018ERL....13l3001B |s2cid=159013281 |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free }}</ref>