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From the beginning of Christianity through the tenth century, Christian theologians saw the [[Eucharist]] as the church's participation in [[Christ's sacrifice]]. Christ was believed to be present in the Eucharist, but there were differences over the way in which this occurred.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|pp=11–12}}
 
Reformed theologian John Riggs has argued that the [[School of Antioch]] in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], along with [[Hilary of Poitiers]] and [[Ambrose]] in the [[Western Roman Empire]], taught a realist, metabolic, or somatic view, where the elements of the Eucharist were believed to be changed into [[Christ's body and blood]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|pp=12–13}} Riggs maintains that the influential fourth-century Western theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]], on the other hand, held that Christ is really present in the elements of the Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in [[Heavenheaven in Christianity|heaven]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=15}} Riggs [[Thomas Cranmer]] argued similarlyargues that Augustine held to spiritual presence ofbelieved the Eucharist.<ref>{{Cite bookis |last=Allena |first=Amanda Wrenn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_NiDwAAQBAJ&dq=Augustine+spiritual+real+presence&pg=PA144 |title=Theeating Eucharisticwhich Debateallows inChristians Tudorto England:become Thomaspart Cranmer,of Stephen Gardiner, and the English ReformationChrist's body.{{sfn|date=2018-08-15 Ayres|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Humphries|isbn=978-1-4985-5976-8 2015|languagep=en159}}</ref> AnglicanWestern theologiantheologians Brianin Douglasthe maintainsthree thatcenturies following "Augustine isdid clear,not nonetheless,elaborate in his use of realism and argues thaton the presence ofway Christ in the Eucharist is realpresent such thatin the breadEucharist, andbut wine and their offering participate in a real way inemphasized the eternaltransforming and heavenly Formspower of Christ's body andthe bloodsacrament."{{sfn|DouglasAyres|2011Humphries|2015|p=23161–162}}
 
According to Riggs, in the ninth century, [[Hrabanus Maurus]] and [[Ratramnus]] also defended Augustine's view of nonmetabolic real presence.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=18}} During the high and late Middle Ages, the metabolic view became increasingly dominant to the exclusion of the nonmetabolic view, to the point that it was considered the only orthodox option.{{sfn|Levy|2015|p=236}} The doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] was developed in the high Middle Ages to explain the change of the elements into Christ's body and blood. Transubstantiation is the belief that the Eucharistic elements are transformed into Christ's body and blood in a way only perceivable by the intellect, not by the senses.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=24}}
Another influential theologian that has been argued to have held a pneumatic view of real presence is [[Tertullian]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjIsAQAAMAAJ&dq=Tertullian+spiritual+presence+Eucharist&pg=PA136 |title=Bibliotheca Sacra and Theological Review |date=1844 |publisher=Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbBPAAAAMAAJ&dq=Tertullian+spiritually+present+Eucharist&pg=PA525 |title=The British Magazine and Monthly Register of Religious and Ecclesiastical Information, Parochial History, and Documents Respecting the State of the Poor, Progress of Education, Etc |date=1833 |publisher=J. Petheram |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaye |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZcZKlLb53AC&dq=Tertullian+spiritually+present+Eucharist&pg=PA154 |title=Works of John Kaye, Bishop of Lincoln: Miscellaneous works with memoir of the author |date=1888 |publisher=Rivingtons |language=en}}</ref>
 
Anglican theologian Brian Douglas maintains that "Augustine is clear, nonetheless, in his use of realism and argues that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is real such that the bread and wine and their offering participate in a real way in the eternal and heavenly Forms of Christ's body and blood."{{sfn|Douglas|2011|p=23}}
In the medieval age some theologians taught the pneumatic view of real presence. The view was commonly held in medieval England, as can be seen in the writings of [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Aelfric of Eynsham]]. Pneumatic presence was also advocated by [[Berengar of Tours]] in the 11th century, whose views caused a controversy in the medieval Church.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc4/hcc4.i.xi.xxiv.html |access-date=2022-03-07 |website=ccel.org}}</ref> [[Thomas R. Schreiner|Thomas Schreiner]] additionally argued that [[Ratramnus]] believed in a spiritual presence in the Eucharist.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schreiner |first1=Thomas R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSm5AwAAQBAJ&dq=Ratramnus+spiritual+real+presence&pg=PA141 |title=The Lord's Supper |last2=Crawford |first2=Matthew R. |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4336-7338-2 |language=en}}</ref>
 
[[Berengar of Tours]] also had an Eucharist view very similar to Calvin, and such views were common in the early Ango-Saxon church, as can be seen in the writings of [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Aelfric of Eynsham]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc4/hcc4.i.xi.xxiv.html |access-date=2022-03-07 |website=ccel.org}}</ref>
 
===Reformation===
[[File:Calvin heart coin.png|thumb|This seventeenth-century medal commemorating [[John Calvin]] depicts a hand holding a heart to heaven. Calvin believed Christians were lifted up to heaven by the Holy Spirit in the Lord's Supper.]]
 
[[Martin Luther]], a leading figure of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and leader of the [[Protestant]] movement which would be called [[Lutheranism]], rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, but continued to hold that Christ is bodily present "under the bread and wine".{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=55}} Luther insisted that Christ's words during the institution of the sacrament, "this is my body", be taken literally. He believed that anyone who ate and drank during the Eucharist (often called the "Lord's Supper" by Protestants) physically ate Christ's body and drank his blood, regardless of their faith.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=53}}
 
[[Huldrych Zwingli]], the first theologian in the Reformed tradition, also rejected the view of transubstantiation,{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=55}} but he disagreed with Luther by holding that Christ's body is not physically present in the Eucharist. He held that Christ's whole person (body and spirit) is presented to believers in the Eucharist, but that this does not occur by Christ's body being eaten with the mouth.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=73}} This view has been labeled "mystical real presence", meaning that those who partake have a direct experience of God's presence,{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=35}} or "spiritual real presence" because Christ's presence is by his spirit.{{sfn|Opitz|2016|p=128}} Zwingli also did not believe that the sacrament actually confers the grace which is offered in the sacrament, but that the outer signs of bread and wine testify to that grace and awaken the [[Memorialism#Zwingli's memorialism|memory of Christ's death]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=73}}
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*[[Receptionism]]
*[[Reformed baptismal theology]]
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==References==
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*{{cite book |last1=Ayres |first1=Lewis |author1-link=Lewis Ayres |last2=Humphries |first2=Thomas |year=2015 |chapter=Augustine and the West to ad 650 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199659067.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199659067-e-6 |editor1-last=Boersma |editor1-first=Hans |editor1-link=Hans Boersma |editor2-last=Levering |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Oxford Handbook of Sacramental Theology |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199659067.013.6 |isbn=978-0-19-965906-7 |pages=156–169 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
*{{cite book |last1=Douglas |first1=Brian |year=2011 |title=A Companion to Anglican Eucharistic Theology: Volume 1: The Reformation to the 19th Century |isbn=978-90-04-22132-1 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Companion_to_Anglican_Eucharistic_Theo/UfAxAQAAQBAJ |publisher=Brill }}
*{{cite journal |last=Gerrish |first=B. A. |date=July 1966 |title=The Lord's Supper in the Reformed Confessions |journal=Theology Today |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=224–243 |doi=10.1177/004057366602300208 |s2cid=170882313 }}
*{{cite book |last=Holifield |first=E. Brooks |year=2015 |chapter=Sacramental Theology in America: Seventeenth–Nineteenth Centuries |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199659067.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199659067-e-24 |editor1-last=Boersma |editor1-first=Hans |editor1-link=Hans Boersma |editor2-last=Levering |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Oxford Handbook of Sacramental Theology |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199659067.013.24 |isbn=978-0-19-965906-7 |pages=380–395 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press }}
*{{cite book |last=Horton |first=Michael S. |author-link=Michael Horton (theologian) |title=People and Place: A Covenant Ecclesiology |year=2008 |location=Louisville, KY |publisher=Westminster John Knox |isbn=978-0-664-23071-5 }}
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