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{{Calvinism}}
===Background===
Reformed theologian John Riggs has argued that the [[School of Antioch]] in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], along with [[Hilary of Poitiers]] and [[Ambrose]] in the [[Western Roman Empire]], taught a realist, metabolic, or somatic view, where the elements of the Eucharist were believed to be changed into [[Christ's body and blood]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|pp=12–13}} Riggs maintains that the influential fourth-century Western theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]], on the other hand, held that Christ is really present in the elements of the Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in [[Heaven in Christianity|heaven]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=15}} [[Thomas Cranmer]] argued similarly that Augustine held to spiritual presence of the Eucharist.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Amanda Wrenn |url=https://books.google.fi/books?id=S_NiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144&dq=Augustine+spiritual+real+presence&hl=fi&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjXrs_Znq_5AhWPvYsKHQVIBy4Q6AF6BAgHEAI#v=onepage&q=Augustine%20spiritual%20real%20presence&f=false |title=The Eucharistic Debate in Tudor England: Thomas Cranmer, Stephen Gardiner, and the English Reformation |date=2018-08-15 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4985-5976-8 |language=en}}</ref>
According to Riggs, in the ninth century, [[Hrabanus Maurus]] and [[Ratramnus]] also defended the view of nonmetabolic real presence.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=18}} Anglican theologian Brian Douglas maintains that "Augustine is clear, nonetheless, in his use of realism and argues that the presence of Christ in the Eucharist is real such that the bread and wine and their offering participate in a real way in the eternal and heavenly Forms of Christ's body and blood."{{sfn|Douglas|2011|p=23}}
From the beginning of Christianity through the tenth century, Christian theologians saw the [[Eucharist]] as the church's participation in [[Christ's sacrifice]]. Christ was believed to be present in the Eucharist, but there were differences over the way in which this occurred.{{sfn|Riggs|2015|pp=11–12}}
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