Aravalli Range: Difference between revisions

{{about|the mountain range|the district in Gujarat|AravaliAravalli district}}

The '''Aravalli Range''' (also spelled ''Aravali'') is a mountain range in [[North India|Northern]]-[[West India|Western India]], running approximately {{convert|670|km|abbr=on}} in a south-west direction, starting near [[Delhi]], passing through southern [[Haryana]],<ref name=ara8>{{cite web|url=http://aravalibiodiversitypark.in/?q=node/1 |title=Aravalli Biodiversity Park, Gurgaon |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528194722/http://aravalibiodiversitypark.in/?q=node%2F1 |archive-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> [[Rajasthan]], and ending in Ahmedabad [[Gujarat]].<ref name=ara3>{{citation|last=Kohli|first=M.S.|title=Mountains of India: Tourism, Adventure, Pilgrimage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIs4zv17HHwC&pg=PA29|year=2004|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=978-81-7387-135-1|pages=29–}}</ref><ref name=ara4>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kpd9lLY_0-IC&q=Aravali&pg=PA92 |chapter=Aravali Range |title=Students' Britannica India |author1=Dale Hoiberg |author2=Indu Ramchandani |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-85229-760-5 |pages=92–93}}</ref> The highest peak is [[Guru Shikhar]] on Mount Abu at {{convert|1722|m|abbr=on}}. The Aravalli Range is arguably the oldest geological feature on [[Earth]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Verma|first1=P. K.|last2=Greiling|first2=R. O.|date=1995-12-01|title=Tectonic evolution of the Aravalli orogen (NW India): an inverted Proterozoic rift basin?|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00240560|journal=Geologische Rundschau|language=en|volume=84|issue=4|pages=683–696|doi=10.1007/BF00240560|bibcode=1995GeoRu..84..683V |s2cid=129382615|issn=1432-1149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1990-01-01|title=Evolution of the Precambrian Crust of the Aravalli Mountain Range|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166263508701737|journal=Developments in Precambrian Geology|language=en|volume=8|pages=327–347|doi=10.1016/S0166-2635(08)70173-7|issn=0166-2635|last1=Roy|first1=A.B.|isbn=9780444883100}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=December 11, 2015|title=International Mountain Day: India has the oldest and the youngest mountains in the world|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/international-mountain-day-276734-2015-12-11|access-date=2021-06-28|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Aravalli Hills Are the Oldest Fold Mountains of the World|url=https://www.campwilddhauj.in/aravali-valley-651#:~:text=Aravalli%20Hills%20Are%20the%20Oldest%20Fold%20Mountains%20of%20the%20World|access-date=2021-06-28|website=www.campwilddhauj.in}}</ref> having its origin in the [[Proterozoic]] era.

The [[Geography of India#Cratons|Indian Craton]] includes [[List of shields and cratons#Indian Subcontinent|five major cratons]]. Cratons are part of [[continental crust]] made up of upper layer called [[Platform (geology)|platforms]] and older bottom layer called [[Basement (geology)|basement rocks]]. [[Shield (geology)|shield]]s are part of a craton where basement rock [[Outcrop|crops out]] at the surface and it is the relatively oldest and most stable part that are undeformed by the [[plate tectonics]]. The [[Aravalli Craton]] (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton) covers [[Rajasthan]] as well as [[Tosham Hill range|western]] and [[South Haryana|southern]] [[Haryana]]. It includes the Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west. It is limited by the Great Boundary Fault in the east, the [[Thar desertDesert]] in the west, Indo-gangetic alluvium in the north, and the [[Son River]]-[[Narmada River]]-[[Tapti River]] basins in the south. It mainly has [[quartzite]], [[marble]], [[pelite]], [[greywacke]] and extinct volcanos exposed in the [[Aravalli-Delhi Orogen]]. [[Jodhpur Group – Malani Igneous Suite Contact|Malani Igneous Suite]] is the largest in India and third largest [[Igneous rock|igneous]] suit in the world.<ref name=cratonm2>[https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/cratons-of-india Cratons of India].</ref><ref name=cratonm1>[http://mem.lyellcollection.org/content/43/1/151 Cratons of India], lyellcollection.org.</ref> The uniqueness of the geological feature of Malani Igneous Suite at Jodhpur prompted the [[Geological Survey of India]] to declare the site as a [[National Geological Monument]].<ref name= GSI>{{cite book|title=National Geological Monuments|access-date=23 March 2009|workchapter= Jodhpur Group-Malani Igneous Suite Contact|pages=65–67|publisher=Geological Survey of India, |location=27 Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Kolkata,700016|year=2001|url=http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no24484.htm}}</ref>

(c) summary sub-section on Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation sites in Haryana, Gujrat and Rajasthan,

The Aravalli Range has been site of three broad stages of human history, early Stone Age saw the use of flint stones; mid-Stone Age starting from 20,000 BP saw the domestication of cattle for agriculture; and post Stone Age starting from 10,000 BP saw the development of the [[Kalibangan]] civilizationcivilisation, 4,000 years old Aahar civilizationcivilisation and 2,800 years old Gneshwar civilizationcivilisation.

A large region was covered under the famous Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation. The remains of Pilibanga, Kalibanga, Rangmahal, etc. as discovered in Rajasthan indicate that Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation.

Kalibanga CivilizationCivilisation: The excavation of Kalibanga was done under the supervision of Sri B.K. Thapar and Sri B.B. Lal. Kalibanga CivilizationCivilisation developed and flourished near the river Saraswati. River Saraswati used to flow in Ganganagar district formerly but has now altogether vanished. Most archaeologists fully agree with the view that the prehistoric remains of Mohanjodaro period are scattered over Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaipur districts. Saindhava script was used by the people of this period which was written from right to left. Aahar CivilizationCivilisation: The excavation work of Aahar civilisation was done under the direction of Dr. H.D. Sankalia. About 4000 years old Aahar civilisation was spread all over the near vicinity of river Aahar in Udaipur district. This civilisation flourished on the banks of rivers Banas and Bairach in Udaipur, Gambhiri, and Wagan in Chittorgrah, Khari and Kothari in Bhilwara up to Ajmer. Copper was largely used in Aahar civilisation as also utensils of black brown and red colours were in common use. Rice was known to the people of this civilisation whose economy was chiefly based upon domestication of cattles. The house were made of pucca bricks.

Ganeshwar CivilizationCivilisation: The remains of Ganeshwar civilisation are situated in Neem-Ka-Thana tehsil of Sikar district as the point of origin of river Kantli. The civilisation is about 2800 years old and is probably the oldest one as per the dates be available from the records of the cultural centres of copper age. This civilisation was spread over from Sikar to Jhunjhunu, Jaipur and Bharatpur.

Pind Padlia(Chittorgarh), Jharol (Udaipur), Kurada (Nagaur), Sabnia and Poogal (Bikaner), Nandlalpura, Kirarot and Chauthvari (Jaipur), Aelana(Jalore), Budha Pushkar (Ajmer), Kol-Maholi (Sawai Madhopur), Malah (Bharatpur) etc. Were notable ancient places of copper age civilisation.

Aryan CivilizationCivilisation: The clay pots as found in the course of the excavations of Anupgarh and Tarkhanwala Dera are indicative of the presence of Aryan civilisation in Rajasthan. It is worth noting that the seventh part of the Rigveda was written on the banks of river Saraswati. Excavations show that people of this age were perfect in the different uses of iron. Jodhpura, Noh (Bharatpur), Viratnagar(Jaipur) and Sunari in Jhunjhunu are the important places Where the excavations brought to light the traces of Aryan civilisation in Rajasthan. The Mahabharata Age: During the Mahabharata period, northeastern Rajasthan was highly developed. The excavation of Bairath near Alwar and Noh near Bharatpur disclosed that the social life became highly developed at these places during this period. The whole of Rajasthan except for Jaisalmer and Barmer had started developing into different cities and towns by the beginning of Kushan period. The excavation of Bhinmal (Jalore), Sambhar (Jaipur), Nainwa (Tonk), Raidh (Tonk), Nagri (Chittoregarh), Rangmahal (Ganganagar), Noh (Bharatpur), Bairath (Jaipur) etc. have brought to light the remains of many centuries before Christ which go to prove the ancient character of these places.

=== Tosham hillsHills Indus civilizationCivilisation mines ===

The [[Tosham Hill range#Tosham Hill range Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation mines and smelters|Tosham hills]] have several [[Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation]] sites in and around the hill range as the area falls under copper-bearing zone of Southwest Haryana and Northeast Rajasthan of Aravalli hill range.<ref name=law3>{{cite journal |first1=N. |last1=Kochhar |first2=R. |last2=Kochhar |first3=D. K. |last3=Chakrabarti |year=1999 |title=A New Source of Primary Tin Ore in the Indus Civilisation |journal=South Asian Studies |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=115–118 |doi=10.1080/02666030.1999.9628571 }}</ref><ref name=law4>{{cite book |first=D. K. |last=Chakrabarti |year=2014 |chapter=Distribution and Features of the Harappan Settlements |title=History of India II : Protohistoric Foundation |publisher=[[Vivekananda International Foundation]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7305-481-5 |pages=97–143 }}</ref>

Ravindra Nath Singh and his team of [[Banaras Hindu University]] carried out [[Archaeological Survey of India|ASI]]-financed excavations of [[Indus Valley civilizationCivilisation]] site on the grounds of the Government School in Khanak, during 2014 and 2016. They found [[Periodisation of the Indus Valley civilisation|early to mature Harappan phase IVC]] materials, pottery, semiprecious beads of [[lapis lazuli]], [[carnelian]] and others. They also found evidence of metallurgical activities, such as [[crucible]]s (used for pouring molten metal), furnace lining, burnt floor, ash and ore slugs. [[Ceramic petrography]], [[metallography]], [[scanning electron microscope]] (SEM, non-destructive, surface images of nanoscale resolution), [[energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy]] (EDXA and EDXMA non-destructive, qualitative and quantitative elemental composition) and [[transmission electron microscopy]] (TEM, destructive method) scientific studies of the material found prove that the Khanak site was inhabited by the IVC metal-workers who used the locally mined [[polymetal]]lic [[tin]], and they were also familiar with metallurgical work with [[copper]] and [[bronze]]. The lowest level of site dates back as far the pre-Harappan era to [[Sothi (archaeology)|Sothi-Siswal culture]] (4600 BCE or 6600 BP) tentatively.<ref name=sciexp1>{{citation|doi=10.1134/S1063774516060183|title=Electron microscopy methods in studies of cultural heritage sites|journal=Crystallography Reports|volume=61|issue=6|pages=873–885|year=2016|last1=Vasiliev|first1=A. L.|last2=Kovalchuk|first2=M. V.|last3=Yatsishina|first3=E. B.|bibcode=2016CryRp..61..873V|s2cid=99544227}}</ref>

=== Ganeshwar sunariSunari Cultural Complex ===

The Ganeshwar sunariSunari Cultural Complex (GSCC) is a collection of third millennium BCE settlements in the area of the Aravalli Hill Range. Among them, there are similarities in material culture, and in the production of copper tools. They are located near the copper mines.

"The GSCC is east of the Harappan culture, to the north-east of [[Ahar-BanasAhar–Banas culture|Ahar-BanasAhar–Banas Complex]], north/north west to the Kayatha Culture and at a later date, west of the OCP-Copper Hoard sites ([[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]]-–[[Copper Hoard culture]]). Located within the regions of the Aravalli Hill Range, primarily along the Kantli, Sabi, Sota, Dohan and Bondi rivers, the GJCC is the largest copper producing community in third millennium BCE South Asia, with 385 sites documented. Archaeological indicators of the GSCC were documented primarily in Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, and Sikar districts of Rajasthan, India ..."<ref name=ara11>Uzma Z. Rizvi (2010) [http://www.networkedheritage.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Indices-of-interactions-Rizvi-2010.pdf Indices of Interaction: Comparisons between the Ahar-BanasAhar–Banas and Ganeshwar Jodhpura Cultural Complex] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509152542/http://www.networkedheritage.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Indices-of-interactions-Rizvi-2010.pdf |date=9 May 2016 }}, in EASAA 2007: Special Session on Gilund Excavations, edited by T. Raczek and V. Shinde, pp. 51–61. British Archaeological Reports: ArchaeoPress</ref>

There are two main [[type site]]s, [[Ganeshwar]], and [[Sunari]], in Tehsil Kot Putli, [[Jaipur Districtdistrict]] (Geo coordinates: N 27° 35' 51", 76° 06' 85" E).

[[File:Thar Khuri.jpg|thumb|left|Camel ride in the [[Thar Desert]] near [[Jaisalmer]].]]

The northwestern portion of Rajasthan is generally sandy and dry. Most of this region is covered by the [[Thar Desert]] which extends into adjoining portions of Pakistan. The Aravalli Range does not intercept the moisture-giving southwest [[monsoon]] winds off the [[Arabian Sea]], as it lies in a direction parallel to that of the coming monsoon winds, leaving the northwestern region in a [[rain shadow]]. The Thar Desert is thinly populated; the town of [[Jodhpur]] is the largest city in the desert and known as the gateway of Thar Desert. The desert has some major districts like Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner and Nagour. This area is also an important defence point of view. Jodhpur airbase is Indias largest airbase and military, BSF bases are also situated here. A single civil airport is also situated in Jodhpur. The [[Northwestern thorn scrub forests]] lie in a band around the Thar Desert, between the desert and the Aravallis. This region receives less than 400&nbsp;mm of rain in an average year. Temperatures can sometimes exceed 54&nbsp;°C in the summer months or {{convert|129|°F|°C}} and drop below freezing in the winter. The [[Godwar]], [[Marwar]], and [[Shekhawati]] [[List of regions in India|regions]] lie in the thorn scrub forest zone, along with the city of [[Jodhpur]]. The [[Luni River]] and its tributaries are the major river system of Godwar and Marwar regions, draining the western slopes of the Aravallis and emptying southwest into the great [[Rann of Kutch]] wetland in neighbouring [[Gujarat]]. This river is saline in the lower reaches and remains potable only up to Balotara in Barmer district. The [[Ghaggar River]], which originates in [[Haryana]], is an intermittent stream that disappears into the sands of the Thar Desert in the northern corner of the state and is seen as a remnant of the primitive [[Saraswati]] river.

The Aravalli Range and the lands to the east and southeast of the range are generally more fertile and better watered. This region is home to the [[Kathiarbar-GirKathiarbar–Gir dry deciduous forests]] ecoregion, with [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry broadleaf forests]] that include [[teak]], ''[[Acacia]]'', and other trees. The hilly [[Vagad]] region, home to the cities of [[Dungarpur]] and [[Banswara]] lies in southernmost Rajasthan, on the border with [[Gujarat]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]]. With the exception of Mount Abu, Vagad is the wettest region in Rajasthan, and the most heavily forested. North of Vagad lies the [[Mewar]] region, home to the cities of [[Udaipur]] and [[Chittaurgarh]]. The [[Hadoti]] region lies to the southeast, on the border with Madhya Pradesh. North of Hadoti and Mewar lies the [[Dhundhar]] region, home to the state capital of [[Jaipur]]. [[Mewat]], the easternmost region of Rajasthan, borders [[Haryana]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Eastern and southeastern Rajasthan is drained by the [[Banas River|Banas]] and [[Chambal River|Chambal]] rivers, tributaries of the [[Ganges]].

**[[Luni River]], originates in the [[Pushkar]] valley near Ajmer, ends in the marshy lands of [[Rann of Kutch]]. It used to be one of the channel of the [[Saraswati River]], as a result its banks have several [[Indus Valley civilisationCivilisation]] sites including [[Lothal]].

** [[Sabarmati River]], originates on the western slopes of Aravalli range of the [[Udaipur Districtdistrict]], end into the [[Gulf of Khambhat]] of the [[Arabian Sea]].

* West to north-west flowing rivers originate from the western slopes of the Aravalli range in Rajasthan, flow through semi-arid historical [[Shekhawati]] region and drain into southern Haryana. Several [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]] sites, also identified as late Harappan phase of [[Indus Valley civilisationCivilisation]] culture,<ref name=IVCOCP>{{Citation | editor-last = Gupta | editor-first = S.P. | title = The 'Lost' Sarasvati and the Indus CivilizationCivilisation | place = Jodhpur | publisher = Kusumanjali Prakashan | year = 1995}}</ref> have been found along the banks of these rivers.

**** [[Berach River]], a southern-side tributary of Banas River, originates in the hills of [[Udaipur Districtdistrict]].

***** [[Ahar River]], a right-side (or eastern side) tributary of the Berach river, originates in the hills of Udaipur Districtdistrict, flows through [[Udaipur]] city forming the famous [[Lake Pichola]].

{{see also | Forests Department, Haryana#Leopards | l1= Leopards of Haryana}}

{{anchor | Northern Aravalli wildlife corridor | Sariska-Delhi wildlife corridor | Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor | Sariska-Delhi leopard wildlife corridor }}

The Sariska-DelhiSariska–Delhi leopard wildlife corridor or the Northern Aravalli leopard wildlife corridor is a 200&nbsp;km long important [[biodiversity]] and [[wildlife corridor]] which runs from the [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]] in Rajasthan to Delhi Ridge.<ref name=protect1>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/haryana-government-moots-buffer-zone-to-save-asola-sanctuary/articleshow/67752163.cms Haryana Government moots buffer zone to save Asola sanctuary], ''Times of India'', 30 January 2019.</ref>

This corridor is an important habitat for the Indian [[leopard]]s and [[jackal]]s of Aravalli. In January 2019, the [[Wildlife Institute of India]] announced that they will undertake the survey of leopard and wildlife, using pugmarks and trap cameras, subsequently, leopards and jackals will be tracked via the [[Wildlife radio telemetry|radio collars]]. Urban development, especially the highways and railways bisecting the Aravalli range and wildlife corridor in several places pose a great risk. Large parts of Aravalli are legally and physically unprotected, with no wildlife passages and little or no wildlife conservation work resulting in deaths of over 10 leopards in 4 years between January 2015 to January 2019.<ref name=hitunp1>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/death-proof-of-leopardlife-in-asola-sanctuary/story-XFkBEhQ05I2vew9M1KDSFI.html Death, proof of leopard life in Asola sanctuary], Hindustan Times, 31 January 2019.</ref><ref name=today1>[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/10-month-old-leopard-dead-haryana-gurugram-faridabad-expressway-1442898-2019-01-30 10-month-old leopard found dead on Gurugram-Faridabad Expressway], ''India Today'', 31 January 2019.</ref><ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/leopard-killed-in-accident-on-gurugram-faridabad-road/articleshow/67755160.cms Leopard killed in accident on Gurugram-Faridabad road], ''Times of India'', 30 January 2019.</ref>

The Haryana side of the Gurugram-Faridabad Aravalli hill forests lack availability of water due to which wild animals are seldom seen there. The Government of Haryana used drones for aerial surveys and dug 22 [[ephemeral]] pits in 2018 to store the rainwater which became dry during the summer months. In January 2019, the government announced the plan to make the pit [[Perennial stream|perennial]] by connecting those with pipelines from the nearby villages.<ref name=scar1>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/leopards-keep-away-from-haryana-side-of-asola-due-to-scarcity-of-water/articleshow/67777130.cms Leopards keep away from Haryana side of Asola due to scarcity], ''Times of India'', 1 February 2019.</ref>

[[File:Asokan Pillar.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Ashoka pillar]] at Delhi Ridge, brought to Delhi from [[Topra Kalan]] by [[Firoz Shah Tughlaq]] in 1356.]]

** [[Northern ridgeRidge biodiversity park]], 87 hectares approximately near [[Delhi University]]

** [[Madhogarh biodiversityBiodiversity parkPark]] forest

** [[Nuh Aravalli biodiversityBiodiversity parkPark]] forest

** [[Satnali biodiversityBiodiversity parkPark]] forest

** [[Tosham hillsHill range]] biodiversity park

The Aravalli Range has several forests with a diversity of environment.<ref name=ara1>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/aravalis-in-ggn-faridabad-core-area-for-leopards-finds-survey/articleshow/59198463.cms Aravalis in Gurugram, Faridabad core area for leopards, finds survey], ''[[The Times of India]]'', 17 June 2017</ref>

[[File:Ranthambore National Park.JPG|thumb|upright=1.09|Ranthambore National Park, in Rajasthan.]]

The Aravali Range is the source area of many rivers, resulting in development of human settlements with sustainable economy since pre-historic times. The [[Delhi MumbaiDelhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project]], [[Western Dedicated Freight Corridor]], [[Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor]], [[North Western Railway]] network, [[Jaipur-KishangarhJaipur–Kishangarh Expressway]] and [[Delhi-JaipurDelhi–Jaipur Expressway]], all run parallel to the length of the Aravalli Range providing an economic boost.<ref name=AraEcon1>Jha, Bagis, [[The Times Group|TNN]]. [http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/195-km-super-expressway-to-link-delhi-jaipur/articleshow/57746225.cms 195-km super expressway to link Delhi, Jaipur], ''[[The Economic Times]]'', 21 March 2017, Accessed on 20 June 2017.</ref>

[[environmental damage|Damage to the environment]] and ecology from the unorganized [[urbanisation|urbanization]], [[overexploitation]] of the natural resources including water and minerals, [[environmental effects of mining|mining]], untreated [[human waste]] and disposal, [[pollution]], loss of forest cover and [[habitat loss|wildlife habitat]], unprotected status of most of the Aravalli and the lack of an integrated Aravalli management agency are the major causes of concern.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://science.thewire.in/environment/why-illegal-mining-in-the-aravalli-hills-should-scare-delhi-and-its-neighbours/|title=Why Illegal Mining in the Aravalli Hills Should Scare Delhi and Its Neighbours|work=The Wire|author=Hridayesh Joshi|date=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://amp.dw.com/en/the-disappearance-of-indias-aravali-hills/a-49617993|title=The disappearance of India's Aravali Hills|work=[[DW News]]|date=25 July 2019}}</ref>

File:Aravali range inside Ranthambhore, Rajasthan.jpg|The Aravali Range inside [[RanthambhoreRanthambore National Park]], in [[Rajasthan]].