《木星》嘅修訂比較
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{{Infobox planet |
{{Infobox planet |
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| name = 木星 |
| name = 木星 |
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| bgcolour = Wheat |
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| symbol = [[File:Jupiter symbol (bold).svg|20px|alt=♃|木星嘅天文學符號。]] |
| symbol = [[File:Jupiter symbol (bold).svg|20px|alt=♃|木星嘅天文學符號。]] |
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| image = [[File:Jupiter.jpg|300px|border|木星外觀]] |
| image = [[File:Jupiter.jpg|300px|border|木星外觀]] |
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| magnitude = {{val|-1.6}}到{{val|-2.94}}<ref name="fact" /> |
| magnitude = {{val|-1.6}}到{{val|-2.94}}<ref name="fact" /> |
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| angular_size = 29.8″到50.1″<ref name="fact" /> |
| angular_size = 29.8″到50.1″<ref name="fact" /> |
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| pronounced = {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Jupiter.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|uː|p| |
| pronounced = {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Jupiter.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|uː|p|ᵻ|t|ər}}<ref>Jupiter, entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, prepared by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 8, second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-861220-6 (vol. 8), ISBN 0-19-861186-2 (set.)</ref> |
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| adjectives = |
| adjectives = |
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| temperatures = yes |
| temperatures = yes |
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* [[硫化氫氨]](NH<sub>4</sub>SH) |
* [[硫化氫氨]](NH<sub>4</sub>SH) |
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}} |
}} |
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⚫ | |||
'''木星''',又叫'''歲星''',係[[太陽系]]八大行星入面最大嘅[[行星]],係由內數到外第五粒行星<ref name=what>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-jupiter-k4.html#.VRt-v45Nhaw |title=What Is Jupiter? |first= |last= |work=NASA |year=2014 |accessdate=April 1, 2015 |archive-date=March 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318040645/https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-jupiter-k4.html#.VRt-v45Nhaw |url-status=live }}</ref>。木星屬於[[氣體大行星]],同[[土星]]、[[天王星]]、[[海王星]]一樣,木星繞[[太陽]]運行,平均距離太陽5.2 [[天文單位|AU]],軌道週期11.86年<ref name="planet_years"/>。木星係地球夜晚睇到嘅第三光嘅天體,只係暗過[[月球]]同[[金星]]<ref name="unaidedeye">{{cite web |url=https://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm|title=The biggest single object we can see in our galaxy, with the unaided eye |publisher=NASA|accessdate=2013-09-26 |format= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605113054/https://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm |archive-date=2009-06-05 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth R.|last=Lang|title=The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00lang|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2011|edition=Second|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00lang/page/n312 285]|isbn=978-0-521-19857-8}}</ref>。 |
'''木星''',又叫'''歲星''',係[[太陽系]]八大行星入面最大嘅[[行星]],係由內數到外第五粒行星<ref name=what>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-jupiter-k4.html#.VRt-v45Nhaw |title=What Is Jupiter? |first= |last= |work=NASA |year=2014 |accessdate=April 1, 2015 |archive-date=March 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318040645/https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-jupiter-k4.html#.VRt-v45Nhaw |url-status=live }}</ref>。木星屬於[[氣體大行星]],同[[土星]]、[[天王星]]、[[海王星]]一樣,木星繞[[太陽]]運行,平均距離太陽5.2 [[天文單位|AU]],軌道週期11.86年<ref name="planet_years"/>。木星係地球夜晚睇到嘅第三光嘅天體,只係暗過[[月球]]同[[金星]]<ref name="unaidedeye">{{cite web |url=https://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm|title=The biggest single object we can see in our galaxy, with the unaided eye |publisher=NASA|accessdate=2013-09-26 |format= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605113054/https://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/scienceques2001/20020201.htm |archive-date=2009-06-05 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Kenneth R.|last=Lang|title=The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00lang|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2011|edition=Second|page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto00lang/page/n312 285]|isbn=978-0-521-19857-8}}</ref>。 |
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==名== |
==名== |
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喺希臘同羅馬文明入面,木星畀命名做佢哋嘅主神 [[宙斯|Zeus]] 同 [[朱比特|Jupiter]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Myths, Symbols and Legends of Solar System Bodies|author=Rachel Alexander|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-7067-0|publisher=Springer|location= New York, NY|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4614-7066-3|pages= |
喺希臘同羅馬文明入面,木星畀命名做佢哋嘅主神 [[宙斯|Zeus]] 同 [[朱比特|Jupiter]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Myths, Symbols and Legends of Solar System Bodies|url=https://archive.org/details/mythssymbolslege0000alex|author=Rachel Alexander|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-7067-0|publisher=Springer|location= New York, NY|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4614-7066-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythssymbolslege0000alex/page/141 141]–159}}</ref>。[[國際天文學聯會]]喺1976年正式以 Jupiter 命名呢粒行星,並以神嘅愛人、最愛同後裔命名木星嘅衛星<ref>{{cite web | title=Naming of Astronomical Objects | publisher=International Astronomical Union | url=https://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming/ | access-date=2022-03-23 }}</ref>。 |
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==形成同遷徙== |
==形成同遷徙== |
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===質量同大細=== |
===質量同大細=== |
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[[File:Jupiter and Europa 2020.tiff|alt=see caption|left|thumb|木星同[[木衛二]](左)。地球嘅[[直徑]]細過木星11倍,大過木衛二4倍。]] |
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木星嘅[[質量]]係地球 318 倍<ref name="fact" />,係太陽系其他行星質量總和嘅 2.5 倍。佢嘅質量之大令佢嘅太陽重心喺太陽表面上方,離太陽中心 1.068 個太陽半徑<ref>{{cite book |last=MacDougal |first=Douglas W. |title=Newton's Gravity |url=https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd |url-access=limited |year=2012 |publisher=Springer New York |isbn=978-1-4614-5443-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd/page/n208 193]–211 |language=en |chapter=A Binary System Close to Home: How the Moon and Earth Orbit Each Other |quote=the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5444-1_10 |series=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics }}</ref> <ref name="burgess">{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Burgess |date=1982 |title=By Jupiter: Odysseys to a Giant |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-05176-7}}</ref>{{rp|6}}。木星嘅半徑大約係太陽半徑嘅十分之一<ref name="shu82">{{cite book |first=Frank H. |last=Shu |date=1982 |title=The physical universe: an introduction to astronomy |page=[https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 426] |series=Series of books in astronomy |edition=12th |publisher=University Science Books |isbn=978-0-935702-05-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 }}</ref>,質量係太陽質量嘅千分之一,因為兩個天體[[密度]]相似<ref name="davis_turekian05">{{cite book | last1=Davis | first1=Andrew M. | last2=Turekian | first2=Karl K. | title=Meteorites, comets, and planets | volume=1 | series=Treatise on geochemistry | publisher=Elsevier | date=2005 | isbn=978-0-08-044720-9 | page=624}}</ref>。「木星質量」(MJ/MJup)通常用來描述其他天體質量嘅[[單位]],特別係[[系外行星]]同[[棕矮星]]。例如,[[HD 209458 b]]嘅質量係0.69 MJ,而棕矮星[[Gliese 229 b]]嘅質量係60.4 MJ<ref>{{cite web |url=http://exoplanet.eu/ |title=The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia: Interactive Catalogue |publisher=Paris Observatory |first=Jean |last=Schneider |year=2009}}</ref><ref name="Feng2022">{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Fabo |last2=Butler |first2=R. Paul |display-authors=etal |date=August 2022 |title=3D Selection of 167 Substellar Companions to Nearby Stars |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=262 |issue=21 |page=21 |doi=10.3847/1538-4365/ac7e57 |arxiv=2208.12720 |bibcode=2022ApJS..262...21F|s2cid=251864022 |doi-access=free }}</ref>。 |
木星嘅[[質量]]係地球 318 倍<ref name="fact" />,係太陽系其他行星質量總和嘅 2.5 倍。佢嘅質量之大令佢嘅太陽重心喺太陽表面上方,離太陽中心 1.068 個太陽半徑<ref>{{cite book |last=MacDougal |first=Douglas W. |title=Newton's Gravity |url=https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd |url-access=limited |year=2012 |publisher=Springer New York |isbn=978-1-4614-5443-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newtonsgravityin00macd/page/n208 193]–211 |language=en |chapter=A Binary System Close to Home: How the Moon and Earth Orbit Each Other |quote=the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5444-1_10 |series=Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics }}</ref> <ref name="burgess">{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Burgess |date=1982 |title=By Jupiter: Odysseys to a Giant |url=https://archive.org/details/byjupiterodyssey0000burg |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-05176-7}}</ref>{{rp|6}}。木星嘅半徑大約係太陽半徑嘅十分之一<ref name="shu82">{{cite book |first=Frank H. |last=Shu |date=1982 |title=The physical universe: an introduction to astronomy |page=[https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 426] |series=Series of books in astronomy |edition=12th |publisher=University Science Books |isbn=978-0-935702-05-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/physicaluniverse00shuf/page/426 }}</ref>,質量係太陽質量嘅千分之一,因為兩個天體[[密度]]相似<ref name="davis_turekian05">{{cite book | last1=Davis | first1=Andrew M. | last2=Turekian | first2=Karl K. | title=Meteorites, comets, and planets | volume=1 | series=Treatise on geochemistry | publisher=Elsevier | date=2005 | isbn=978-0-08-044720-9 | page=624}}</ref>。「木星質量」(MJ/MJup)通常用來描述其他天體質量嘅[[單位]],特別係[[系外行星]]同[[棕矮星]]。例如,[[HD 209458 b]]嘅質量係0.69 MJ,而棕矮星[[Gliese 229 b]]嘅質量係60.4 MJ<ref>{{cite web |url=http://exoplanet.eu/ |title=The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia: Interactive Catalogue |publisher=Paris Observatory |first=Jean |last=Schneider |year=2009}}</ref><ref name="Feng2022">{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Fabo |last2=Butler |first2=R. Paul |display-authors=etal |date=August 2022 |title=3D Selection of 167 Substellar Companions to Nearby Stars |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=262 |issue=21 |page=21 |doi=10.3847/1538-4365/ac7e57 |arxiv=2208.12720 |bibcode=2022ApJS..262...21F|s2cid=251864022 |doi-access=free }}</ref>。 |
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理論模型話如果木星的質量增加 40% 以上,內部就會被壓縮,即使物質數量增加,體積都會減小。但質量變化較細嘅話,半徑唔會明顯變化<ref name="Seager2007">{{cite journal | last1=Seager | first1=S. | last2=Kuchner | first2=M. | last3=Hier-Majumder | first3=C. A. | last4=Militzer | first4=B. | title=Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=669 | issue=2 | pages=1279–1297 | year=2007 | doi=10.1086/521346 | arxiv=0707.2895 | bibcode=2007ApJ...669.1279S | s2cid=8369390 }}</ref>。因此,木星被認為有同行星組成同進化歷史去到嘅的直徑噉大嘅直徑<ref name="HTUW">{{cite AV media | title=How the Universe Works 3 | volume=Jupiter: Destroyer or Savior? |year=2014 | publisher=Discovery Channel}}</ref>。如果隨住質量增加而進一步收縮嘅過程持續落去嘅話,恆星就會形成<ref name="tristan286">{{cite journal | last=Guillot | first=Tristan | title=Interiors of Giant Planets Inside and Outside the Solar System | journal=Science | year=1999 | volume=286 | issue=5437 | pages=72–77 | doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.72 | pmid=10506563 | bibcode=1999Sci...286...72G | access-date=2022-04-24 | url=http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>。即使木星嘅質量要大約 75 倍先可以融合氫並成為恆星<ref>{{cite journal | title=The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets | last1=Burrows | first1=Adam | last2=Hubbard | first2=W. B. | last3=Lunine | first3=J. I. | last4=Liebert | first4=James | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | volume=73 | issue=3 | pages=719–765 | date=July 2001 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719 | arxiv=astro-ph/0103383 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73..719B | s2cid=204927572 | quote=Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Y<sub>α</sub> = 50.25 is 0.07 – 0.074 {{solar mass}}, ... while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0.092 {{solar mass}} }}</ref>,佢嘅直徑可能已經夠大,因為最細嘅紅矮星嘅半徑可能只係大過土星小小<ref>{{cite journal | title=The EBLM project. III. A Saturn-size low-mass star at the hydrogen-burning limit |
理論模型話如果木星的質量增加 40% 以上,內部就會被壓縮,即使物質數量增加,體積都會減小。但質量變化較細嘅話,半徑唔會明顯變化<ref name="Seager2007">{{cite journal | last1=Seager | first1=S. | last2=Kuchner | first2=M. | last3=Hier-Majumder | first3=C. A. | last4=Militzer | first4=B. | title=Mass-Radius Relationships for Solid Exoplanets | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=669 | issue=2 | pages=1279–1297 | year=2007 | doi=10.1086/521346 | arxiv=0707.2895 | bibcode=2007ApJ...669.1279S | s2cid=8369390 }}</ref>。因此,木星被認為有同行星組成同進化歷史去到嘅的直徑噉大嘅直徑<ref name="HTUW">{{cite AV media | title=How the Universe Works 3 | volume=Jupiter: Destroyer or Savior? |year=2014 | publisher=Discovery Channel}}</ref>。如果隨住質量增加而進一步收縮嘅過程持續落去嘅話,恆星就會形成<ref name="tristan286">{{cite journal | last=Guillot | first=Tristan | title=Interiors of Giant Planets Inside and Outside the Solar System | journal=Science | year=1999 | volume=286 | issue=5437 | pages=72–77 | doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.72 | pmid=10506563 | bibcode=1999Sci...286...72G | access-date=2022-04-24 | url=http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/classes/ge131/notes/guillot.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>。即使木星嘅質量要大約 75 倍先可以融合氫並成為恆星<ref>{{cite journal | title=The theory of brown dwarfs and extrasolar giant planets | last1=Burrows | first1=Adam | last2=Hubbard | first2=W. B. | last3=Lunine | first3=J. I. | last4=Liebert | first4=James | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | volume=73 | issue=3 | pages=719–765 | date=July 2001 | doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.73.719 | arxiv=astro-ph/0103383 | bibcode=2001RvMP...73..719B | s2cid=204927572 | quote=Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Y<sub>α</sub> = 50.25 is 0.07 – 0.074 {{solar mass}}, ... while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0.092 {{solar mass}} }}</ref>,佢嘅直徑可能已經夠大,因為最細嘅紅矮星嘅半徑可能只係大過土星小小<ref>{{cite journal | title=The EBLM project. III. A Saturn-size low-mass star at the hydrogen-burning limit |
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形成嗰陣,木星溫度高過而家,直徑大約係當前直徑嘅兩倍<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bodenheimer |first=P. |title=Calculations of the early evolution of Jupiter |series=23 |journal=Icarus |year=1974 |issue=3 |volume=23 |pages=319–325 |bibcode=1974Icar...23..319B |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(74)90050-5}}</ref>。之後,木星輻射嘅熱量比通過太陽輻射接收嘅熱量多<ref name="elkins-tanton">{{cite book |
形成嗰陣,木星溫度高過而家,直徑大約係當前直徑嘅兩倍<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bodenheimer |first=P. |title=Calculations of the early evolution of Jupiter |series=23 |journal=Icarus |year=1974 |issue=3 |volume=23 |pages=319–325 |bibcode=1974Icar...23..319B |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(74)90050-5}}</ref>。之後,木星輻射嘅熱量比通過太陽輻射接收嘅熱量多<ref name="elkins-tanton">{{cite book |
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| first=Linda T. | last=Elkins-Tanton |date=2011 | title=Jupiter and Saturn | publisher=Chelsea House | location=New York | isbn=978-0-8160-7698-7 | edition=revised}}</ref>{{rp|30}}<ref>{{cite book | title=Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | first=Patrick | last=Irwin | date=2003 | page=62 | isbn=978-3-540-00681-7 | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&pg=PA62}}</ref>。噉令{{link-zh|克赫歷程}}發生,並收縮內部,導致木星每年收縮大約 1 毫米<ref>{{cite book | title = Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | first = Patrick G. J.|last= Irwin | publisher = Springer | orig-year = 2003 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&q=%22kelvin+helmholtz+mechanism%22&pg=PA63|edition= Second |year= 2009| page=4| quote = the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm/yr|isbn=978-3-642-09888-8}}.</ref><ref name="guillot04">{{cite book | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor1-first=Fran | editor2-last=Dowling | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor3-last=McKinnon | editor3-first=William B. | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. | last4=Saumon | first4=Didier | date=2004 | title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | chapter=Chapter 3: The Interior of Jupiter | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 }}</ref>。 |
| first=Linda T. | last=Elkins-Tanton |date=2011 | title=Jupiter and Saturn | url=https://archive.org/details/jupitersaturn0000elki | publisher=Chelsea House | location=New York | isbn=978-0-8160-7698-7 | edition=revised}}</ref>{{rp|30}}<ref>{{cite book | title=Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | first=Patrick | last=Irwin | date=2003 | page=62 | isbn=978-3-540-00681-7 | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&pg=PA62}}</ref>。噉令{{link-zh|克赫歷程}}發生,並收縮內部,導致木星每年收縮大約 1 毫米<ref>{{cite book | title = Giant Planets of Our Solar System: Atmospheres, Composition, and Structure | first = Patrick G. J.|last= Irwin | publisher = Springer | orig-year = 2003 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p8wCsJweUb0C&q=%22kelvin+helmholtz+mechanism%22&pg=PA63|edition= Second |year= 2009| page=4| quote = the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm/yr|isbn=978-3-642-09888-8}}.</ref><ref name="guillot04">{{cite book | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor1-first=Fran | editor2-last=Dowling | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor3-last=McKinnon | editor3-first=William B. | last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Hubbard | first3=William B. | last4=Saumon | first4=Didier | date=2004 | title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521818087 | chapter=Chapter 3: The Interior of Jupiter | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-81808-7 }}</ref>。 |
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===內部結構=== |
===內部結構=== |
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[[File:Jupiter diagram.svg|thumb|left|300px|木星內部、表面特徵、環同內衛星]] |
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科學家針對木星形成有兩種理論:如果行星首先以固體形式吸積,佢會由密度高嘅核心同向外延伸到行星半徑大約 80% 嘅液態[[金屬氫]]同一啲氦嘅周圍層組成<ref>{{cite journal | last=Smoluchowski | first=R. | year=1971 | title=Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=166 | page=435 | doi=10.1086/150971 | bibcode=1971ApJ...166..435S | doi-access=free }}</ref>,而外部大氣層就會由分子氫組成<ref name="guillot04" />。或者,如果行星直接由氣態[[原行星盤]]塌陷,噉佢應該冇核心,而係由密度從外圍到中心一路越來越高嘅流體(主要由分子同金屬氫)組成。[[朱諾號]]嘅數據顯示,木星有一個混合到地幔入面嘅彌散核心,延伸到木星半徑嘅30-50%,而且包含總質量有地球 7-25 倍嘅重元素<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wahl |first1=S. M. |last2=Hubbard |first2=William B. |last3=Militzer |first3=B. |last4=Guillot |first4=Tristan |last5=Miguel |first5=Y. |last6=Movshovitz |first6=N. |last7=Kaspi |first7=Y. |last8=Helled |first8=R. |last9=Reese |first9=D. |last10=Galanti |first10=E. |last11=Levin |first11=S. |last12=Connerney |first12=J. E. |last13=Bolton |first13=S. J. |title=Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4649–4659 |year=2017 |doi=10.1002/2017GL073160 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1707.01997 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.4649W }}</ref><ref name=dilute>{{cite journal|title=The Formation of Jupiter's Diluted Core by a Giant Impact|journal=Nature|date=15 August 2019|author=Shang-Fei Liu|display-authors=et al.|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1470-2|volume=572|issue=7769 |pages=355–357|pmid=31413376 |arxiv=2007.08338|bibcode=2019Natur.572..355L |s2cid=199576704 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20160705">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=July 5, 2016 |title=NASA's Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter's Orbit |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |access-date=July 5, 2016}}</ref><ref name=space_dot_com_2017>{{cite web | url=https://www.space.com/37005-jupiter-fuzzy-core-nasa-juno.html | title=More Jupiter Weirdness: Giant Planet May Have Huge, 'Fuzzy' Core | date=May 26, 2017 | last=Wall | first=Mike | website=[[space.com]] | access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref name=Wrong-Juno>{{Cite web | url=https://www.space.com/39348-juno-jupiter-mission-planet-revelations.html | title='Totally Wrong' on Jupiter: What Scientists Gleaned from NASA's Juno Mission | date=January 10, 2018 | first=Hanneke | last=Weitering | website=[[space.com]] | access-date=February 26, 2021 }}</ref>。 |
科學家針對木星形成有兩種理論:如果行星首先以固體形式吸積,佢會由密度高嘅核心同向外延伸到行星半徑大約 80% 嘅液態[[金屬氫]]同一啲氦嘅周圍層組成<ref>{{cite journal | last=Smoluchowski | first=R. | year=1971 | title=Metallic interiors and magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn | journal=The Astrophysical Journal | volume=166 | page=435 | doi=10.1086/150971 | bibcode=1971ApJ...166..435S | doi-access=free }}</ref>,而外部大氣層就會由分子氫組成<ref name="guillot04" />。或者,如果行星直接由氣態[[原行星盤]]塌陷,噉佢應該冇核心,而係由密度從外圍到中心一路越來越高嘅流體(主要由分子同金屬氫)組成。[[朱諾號]]嘅數據顯示,木星有一個混合到地幔入面嘅彌散核心,延伸到木星半徑嘅30-50%,而且包含總質量有地球 7-25 倍嘅重元素<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wahl |first1=S. M. |last2=Hubbard |first2=William B. |last3=Militzer |first3=B. |last4=Guillot |first4=Tristan |last5=Miguel |first5=Y. |last6=Movshovitz |first6=N. |last7=Kaspi |first7=Y. |last8=Helled |first8=R. |last9=Reese |first9=D. |last10=Galanti |first10=E. |last11=Levin |first11=S. |last12=Connerney |first12=J. E. |last13=Bolton |first13=S. J. |title=Comparing Jupiter interior structure models to Juno gravity measurements and the role of a dilute core |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4649–4659 |year=2017 |doi=10.1002/2017GL073160 |doi-access=free |arxiv=1707.01997 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.4649W }}</ref><ref name=dilute>{{cite journal|title=The Formation of Jupiter's Diluted Core by a Giant Impact|journal=Nature|date=15 August 2019|author=Shang-Fei Liu|display-authors=et al.|doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1470-2|volume=572|issue=7769 |pages=355–357|pmid=31413376 |arxiv=2007.08338|bibcode=2019Natur.572..355L |s2cid=199576704 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20160705">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=July 5, 2016 |title=NASA's Juno Spacecraft Enters Jupiter's Orbit |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/05/science/juno-enters-jupiters-orbit-capping-5-year-voyage.html |access-date=July 5, 2016}}</ref><ref name=space_dot_com_2017>{{cite web | url=https://www.space.com/37005-jupiter-fuzzy-core-nasa-juno.html | title=More Jupiter Weirdness: Giant Planet May Have Huge, 'Fuzzy' Core | date=May 26, 2017 | last=Wall | first=Mike | website=[[space.com]] | access-date=April 20, 2021}}</ref><ref name=Wrong-Juno>{{Cite web | url=https://www.space.com/39348-juno-jupiter-mission-planet-revelations.html | title='Totally Wrong' on Jupiter: What Scientists Gleaned from NASA's Juno Mission | date=January 10, 2018 | first=Hanneke | last=Weitering | website=[[space.com]] | access-date=February 26, 2021 }}</ref>。 |
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喺金屬氫層出面係透明嘅內部氫大氣層,壓力同溫度高過分子氫嘅[[臨界點|臨界壓力]] 1.3 [[帕斯卡|MPa]] 同臨界溫度 33 [[開氏|K]](−240.2 [[攝氏|°C]])<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen: Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants | last1=Trachenko | first1=K. | last2=Brazhkin | first2=V. V. | last3=Bolmatov | first3=D. | journal=Physical Review E | volume=89 | issue=3 | id=032126 | date=March 2014 | page=032126 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.89.032126 | pmid=24730809 | arxiv=1309.6500 | bibcode=2014PhRvE..89c2126T | s2cid=42559818 }}</ref>。喺噉嘅狀態下,冇明顯液相同氣相,所以氫被認為喺超臨界流體狀態。從雲層向下延伸嘅氫氣同氦氣喺更深嘅一層轉變咗做液體,可能同液態氫同其他[[超臨界流體]]嘅海洋類似<ref name="elkins-tanton" />{{rp|22}}<ref>{{cite web | first=Dauna | last=Coulter |title= |
喺金屬氫層出面係透明嘅內部氫大氣層,壓力同溫度高過分子氫嘅[[臨界點|臨界壓力]] 1.3 [[帕斯卡|MPa]] 同臨界溫度 33 [[開氏|K]](−240.2 [[攝氏|°C]])<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dynamic transition of supercritical hydrogen: Defining the boundary between interior and atmosphere in gas giants | last1=Trachenko | first1=K. | last2=Brazhkin | first2=V. V. | last3=Bolmatov | first3=D. | journal=Physical Review E | volume=89 | issue=3 | id=032126 | date=March 2014 | page=032126 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.89.032126 | pmid=24730809 | arxiv=1309.6500 | bibcode=2014PhRvE..89c2126T | s2cid=42559818 }}</ref>。喺噉嘅狀態下,冇明顯液相同氣相,所以氫被認為喺超臨界流體狀態。從雲層向下延伸嘅氫氣同氦氣喺更深嘅一層轉變咗做液體,可能同液態氫同其他[[超臨界流體]]嘅海洋類似<ref name="elkins-tanton" />{{rp|22}}<ref>{{cite web | first=Dauna | last=Coulter | title=A Freaky Fluid inside Jupiter? | url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | website=[[NASA]] | access-date=8 December 2021 | archive-date=2021年12月9號 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209022840/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/09aug_juno3 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Emily | last=Bwaldwin |title= Oceans of diamond possible on Uranus and Neptune |url= https://www.astronomynow.com/news/n1001/21diamond/ | website=[[Astronomy Now]] |access-date=8 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= NASA System Exploration Jupiter| url= https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/jupiter/in-depth.amp |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=8 December 2021}}</ref>。隨著深度增加,氣體逐漸變得更加熱同稠密<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guillot |first=T. |title=A comparison of the interiors of Jupiter and Saturn |journal=Planetary and Space Science |year=1999 |volume=47 |issue=10–11 |pages=1183–1200 |bibcode=1999P&SS...47.1183G |arxiv=astro-ph/9907402 |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00043-4|s2cid=19024073 |url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/394768}}</ref><ref name="lang03">{{cite web |last=Lang |first=Kenneth R. |year=2003 |url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |title=Jupiter: a giant primitive planet |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 10, 2007 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514093512/http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_chapter.asp?id=9&page=3 |url-status=dead }}</ref>。 |
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氦同[[氖]]嘅雨狀液滴通過低層大氣向下沉澱,消耗咗高層大氣入面呢啲元素嘅豐富度<ref name="galileo_ms" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lodders |first=Katharina|author-link=Katharina Lodders |title=Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2004 |volume=611 |issue=1 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1086/421970 |bibcode=2004ApJ...611..587L|s2cid=59361587 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412141533/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2020 }}</ref>。計算表明,氦滴喺半徑60,000 公里處同金屬氫分離,並喺半徑50,000 公里處再次合併<ref>{{cite journal | title=Evidence of hydrogen−helium immiscibility at Jupiter-interior conditions | last1=Brygoo | first1=S. | last2=Loubeyre | first2=P. | last3=Millot | first3=M. | last4=Rygg | first4=J. R. | last5=Celliers | first5=P. M. | last6=Eggert | first6=J. H. | last7=Jeanloz | first7=R. | last8=Collins | first8=G. W. | journal=Nature | volume=593 | issue=7860 | pages=517–521 | year=2021 | doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03516-0 | pmid=34040210 | bibcode=2021Natur.593..517B| osti=1820549 | s2cid=235217898 }}</ref>。天降[[鑽石]]被認為會發生,包括土星<ref name="SC-20131009">{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Miriam |title=Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn |url=https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |date=October 9, 2013 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref>同冰巨行星天王星同海王星<ref name="WP-20170825">{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |date=August 25, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref>。 |
氦同[[氖]]嘅雨狀液滴通過低層大氣向下沉澱,消耗咗高層大氣入面呢啲元素嘅豐富度<ref name="galileo_ms" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lodders |first=Katharina|author-link=Katharina Lodders |title=Jupiter Formed with More Tar than Ice |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |year=2004 |volume=611 |issue=1 |pages=587–597 |doi=10.1086/421970 |bibcode=2004ApJ...611..587L|s2cid=59361587 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412141533/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/afa4/68519084fe3a3076b614442803056943e202.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2020 }}</ref>。計算表明,氦滴喺半徑60,000 公里處同金屬氫分離,並喺半徑50,000 公里處再次合併<ref>{{cite journal | title=Evidence of hydrogen−helium immiscibility at Jupiter-interior conditions | last1=Brygoo | first1=S. | last2=Loubeyre | first2=P. | last3=Millot | first3=M. | last4=Rygg | first4=J. R. | last5=Celliers | first5=P. M. | last6=Eggert | first6=J. H. | last7=Jeanloz | first7=R. | last8=Collins | first8=G. W. | journal=Nature | volume=593 | issue=7860 | pages=517–521 | year=2021 | doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03516-0 | pmid=34040210 | bibcode=2021Natur.593..517B| osti=1820549 | s2cid=235217898 }}</ref>。天降[[鑽石]]被認為會發生,包括土星<ref name="SC-20131009">{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Miriam |title=Diamond Rain May Fill Skies of Jupiter and Saturn |url=https://www.space.com/23135-diamond-rain-jupiter-saturn.html |date=October 9, 2013 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref>同冰巨行星天王星同海王星<ref name="WP-20170825">{{cite news |last=Kaplan |first=Sarah |title=It rains solid diamonds on Uranus and Neptune |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/25/it-rains-solid-diamonds-on-uranus-and-neptune/ |date=August 25, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref>。 |
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===大氣層=== |
===大氣層=== |
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[[File:790106-0203 Voyager 58M to 31M reduced.gif|thumb|木星雲系統喺一個月內移動嘅[[縮時攝影]]([[航行者1號]]飛越期間拍攝)]] |
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木星嘅[[大氣層]]係太陽系行星入面最大嘅,跨越超過5,000 km 嘅高度<ref name=Sieff>{{cite journal |last=Seiff |first=A. |author2=Kirk, D.B. |author3=Knight, T.C.D. |display-authors=etal |date=1998 |title=Thermal structure of Jupiter's atmosphere near the edge of a 5-μm hot spot in the north equatorial belt |journal=[[地球物理研究期刊|Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=103 |issue=E10 |pages=22857–22889 |doi=10.1029/98JE01766 |bibcode=1998JGR...10322857S}}</ref><ref name="Miller Aylward et al. 2005">{{cite journal|title=Giant Planet Ionospheres and Thermospheres: The Importance of Ion-Neutral Coupling|journal=Space Science Reviews|doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1960-4|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-005-1960-4|date=2005-01-01|volume=116|issue=1-2|language=en|pages=319–343|issn=0038-6308|accessdate=2018-04-02|author=Steve Miller, Alan Aylward, George Millward|archive-date=2018-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611005005/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11214-005-1960-4|dead-url=no}}</ref>。木星嘅大氣層會延伸到雲層以下 3,000 km 嘅地方<ref name="Guillot_et_al_2004" />。 |
木星嘅[[大氣層]]係太陽系行星入面最大嘅,跨越超過5,000 km 嘅高度<ref name=Sieff>{{cite journal |last=Seiff |first=A. |author2=Kirk, D.B. |author3=Knight, T.C.D. |display-authors=etal |date=1998 |title=Thermal structure of Jupiter's atmosphere near the edge of a 5-μm hot spot in the north equatorial belt |journal=[[地球物理研究期刊|Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=103 |issue=E10 |pages=22857–22889 |doi=10.1029/98JE01766 |bibcode=1998JGR...10322857S}}</ref><ref name="Miller Aylward et al. 2005">{{cite journal|title=Giant Planet Ionospheres and Thermospheres: The Importance of Ion-Neutral Coupling|journal=Space Science Reviews|doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1960-4|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-005-1960-4|date=2005-01-01|volume=116|issue=1-2|language=en|pages=319–343|issn=0038-6308|accessdate=2018-04-02|author=Steve Miller, Alan Aylward, George Millward|archive-date=2018-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611005005/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11214-005-1960-4|dead-url=no}}</ref>。木星嘅大氣層會延伸到雲層以下 3,000 km 嘅地方<ref name="Guillot_et_al_2004" />。 |
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====雲層==== |
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木星永遠畀[[氨]]晶體雲籠罩,可能仲有硫氫化銨<ref>{{cite journal | title=Coloring Jupiter's clouds: Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) | last1=Loeffler | first1=Mark J. | last2=Hudson | first2=Reggie L. | journal=Icarus | volume=302 | pages=418–425 | date=March 2018 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.041 | bibcode=2018Icar..302..418L | url=https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | access-date=2022-04-25 }}</ref>。雲喺大氣層嘅對流層頂,並喺不同緯度形成帶,叫做熱帶區域。呢啲區域分淺同深,並且相互作用導致風暴同湍流出現。喺緯向急流成日有每秒 100 米(360 km/h)嘅風速出現<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dynamics of Jupiter's Atmosphere | last1=Ingersoll | first1=Andrew P. | author-link1=Andrew Ingersoll | last2=Dowling | first2=Timothy E. | last3=Gierasch | first3=Peter J. | last4=Orton | first4=Glenn S. | last5=Read | first5=Peter L. |
木星永遠畀[[氨]]晶體雲籠罩,可能仲有硫氫化銨<ref>{{cite journal | title=Coloring Jupiter's clouds: Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) | last1=Loeffler | first1=Mark J. | last2=Hudson | first2=Reggie L. | journal=Icarus | volume=302 | pages=418–425 | date=March 2018 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.041 | bibcode=2018Icar..302..418L | url=https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/reprints/NH4SH_Icarus_Loeffler_Hudson_2018.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | access-date=2022-04-25 }}</ref>。雲喺大氣層嘅對流層頂,並喺不同緯度形成帶,叫做熱帶區域。呢啲區域分淺同深,並且相互作用導致風暴同湍流出現。喺緯向急流成日有每秒 100 米(360 km/h)嘅風速出現<ref>{{cite journal | title=Dynamics of Jupiter's Atmosphere | last1=Ingersoll | first1=Andrew P. | author-link1=Andrew Ingersoll | last2=Dowling | first2=Timothy E. | last3=Gierasch | first3=Peter J. | last4=Orton | first4=Glenn S. | last5=Read | first5=Peter L. |
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| last6=Sánchez-Lavega | first6=Agustin | last7=Showman | first7=Adam P. | last8=Simon-Miller | first8=Amy A. | last9=Vasavada | first9=Ashwin R. | journal=Jupiter. The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | editor1-first=Fran | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor2-last=Dowling | editor3-first=William B. | editor3-last=McKinnon | series=Cambridge planetary science | volume=1 | publication-place=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-81808-7 | date=2004 | pages=105–128 | url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref>。據觀察,呢啲區域嘅闊度、顏色同強度每年有變化,但佢哋仍然夠穩定到畀科學家命名<ref name="burgess" />{{rp|6}}。 |
| last6=Sánchez-Lavega | first6=Agustin | last7=Showman | first7=Adam P. | last8=Simon-Miller | first8=Amy A. | last9=Vasavada | first9=Ashwin R. | journal=Jupiter. The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere | editor1-first=Fran | editor1-last=Bagenal | editor2-first=Timothy E. | editor2-last=Dowling | editor3-first=William B. | editor3-last=McKinnon | series=Cambridge planetary science | volume=1 | publication-place=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-81808-7 | date=2004 | pages=105–128 | url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/36015/1/Ingersoll_p105.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | access-date=2022-03-08 }}</ref>。據觀察,呢啲區域嘅闊度、顏色同強度每年有變化,但佢哋仍然夠穩定到畀科學家命名<ref name="burgess" />{{rp|6}}。 |
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雲層大約有 50 公里深,由至少兩層氨雲組成,頂部薄啲同清啲,下層就厚啲。喺木星大氣入面檢測到嘅閃電表明,氨雲下面可能有一層薄[[水雲]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Lightning Generation in Moist Convective Clouds and Constraints on the Water Abundance in Jupiter | last1=Aglyamov | first1=Yury S. | last2=Lunine | first2=Jonathan | last3=Becker | first3=Heidi N. |author3-link=Heidi N. Becker| last4=Guillot | first4=Tristan | last5=Gibbard | first5=Seran G. | last6=Atreya | first6=Sushil | last7=Bolton | first7=Scott J. | last8=Levin | first8=Steven | last9=Brown | first9=Shannon T. | last10=Wong | first10=Michael H. | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | volume=126 | issue=2 | id=e06504 | date=February 2021 | doi=10.1029/2020JE006504 | arxiv=2101.12361 | bibcode=2021JGRE..12606504A | s2cid=231728590 }}</ref>。呢啲放電嘅威力可能係地球閃電嘅一千倍<ref>{{cite web |editor1-last=Watanabe |editor1-first=Susan |date=February 25, 2006 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/galileo_end.html |title=Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 20, 2007 |archive-date=2011年10月8號 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008010724/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/galileo_end.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>。水雲假定會由內部上升嘅熱量驅動,同地球[[雷暴]]一樣噉產生雷暴<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kerr |first=Richard A. |author-link=Richard Kerr (science journalist)|title=Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather |journal=Science |year=2000 |volume=287 |issue=5455 |pages=946–947 |doi=10.1126/science.287.5455.946b |s2cid=129284864 | url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/d4cfc37399ab62ac9e0668fd231cb072/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1256 | access-date=2022-04-26 }}</ref>。[[朱諾號]]任務揭示咗淺層[[閃電]]存在,淺層閃電係源自大氣中相對較高嘅氨水雲<ref>{{cite journal | title=Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter | last1=Becker | first1=Heidi N.|author1-link=Heidi N. Becker | last2=Alexander | first2=James W. | last3=Atreya | first3=Sushil K. | last4=Bolton | first4=Scott J. | last5=Brennan | first5=Martin J. | last6=Brown | first6=Shannon T. | last7=Guillaume | first7=Alexandre | last8=Guillot | first8=Tristan | last9=Ingersoll | first9=Andrew P. | last10=Levin | first10=Steven M. | last11=Lunine | first11=Jonathan I. | last12=Aglyamov | first12=Yury S. | last13=Steffes | first13=Paul G. | journal=Nature | volume=584 | issue=7819 | pages=55–58 | year=2020 | doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2532-1 | pmid=32760043 | bibcode=2020Natur.584...55B | s2cid=220980694 | issn=0028-0836 | url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03058480 }}</ref>。呢啲排放物帶住被冰冚住嘅水氨泥漿「蘑菇團」,並落入大氣深處<ref>{{cite journal | title=Storms and the Depletion of Ammonia in Jupiter: I. Microphysics of "Mushballs" |
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| last1=Guillot | first1=Tristan | last2=Stevenson | first2=David J. | last3=Atreya | first3=Sushil K. | last4=Bolton | first4=Scott J. | last5=Becker | first5=Heidi N.|author5-link=Heidi N. Becker | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | year=2020 | volume=125 | issue=8 | page=e2020JE006403 | doi=10.1029/2020JE006404 | arxiv=2012.14316 | bibcode=2020JGRE..12506403G | s2cid=226194362 }}</ref>。喺木星嘅高層大氣入面觀察到高層大氣閃電,仲有持續大約 1.4 [[毫秒]]嘅明亮閃光。呢啲因為[[氫]]而呈現[[藍色]]或[[粉紅色]]嘅嘢被叫做“elves”或“sprites”<ref>{{cite journal | title=Possible Transient Luminous Events Observed in Jupiter's Upper Atmosphere | last1=Giles | first1=Rohini S. | last2=Greathouse | first2=Thomas K. | last3=Bonfond | first3=Bertrand | last4=Gladstone | first4=G. Randall | last5=Kammer | first5=Joshua A. | last6=Hue | first6=Vincent | last7=Grodent | first7=Denis C. | last8=Gérard | first8=Jean-Claude | last9=Versteeg | first9=Maarten H. | last10=Wong | first10=Michael H. | last11=Bolton | first11=Scott J. | last12=Connerney | first12=John E. P. | last13=Levin | first13=Steven M. | journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets | year=2020 | volume=125 | issue=11 | pages=e06659 | id=e06659 | doi=10.1029/2020JE006659 | arxiv=2010.13740 | bibcode=2020JGRE..12506659G | s2cid=225075904 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Juno Data Indicates 'Sprites' or 'Elves' Frolic in Jupiter's Atmosphere | date=October 27, 2020 | editor-first=Tony | editor-last=Greicius | website=NASA | url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/juno-data-indicates-sprites-or-elves-frolic-in-jupiters-atmosphere | access-date=December 30, 2020 }}</ref>。 |
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木星雲層嘅橙色同棕色係因為由內部上升嘅化合物暴露喺來自太陽嘅[[紫外線]],並改變顏色。確切嘅組成仍然唔清楚,但呢啲物質被認為係由[[磷]]、[[硫]]或可能係由[[烴]]組成<ref name="elkins-tanton" />{{rp|39}}<ref>{{cite conference | last1=Strycker | first1=P. D. | last2=Chanover | first2=N. | last3=Sussman | first3=M. | last4=Simon-Miller | first4=A. |title=A Spectroscopic Search for Jupiter's Chromophores |work=DPS meeting #38, #11.15 |publisher=American Astronomical Society |year=2006 |bibcode=2006DPS....38.1115S}}</ref>。呢啲化合物叫做發色團,佢哋同下層溫暖嘅雲層混合。當上升對流胞形成結晶氨嗰陣,會形成淺色嘅區域,並遮住咗髮色團<ref name="worldbook">{{cite web | last1=Gierasch | first1=Peter J. | last2=Nicholson | first2=Philip D. |author-link2=Phil Nicholson|year=2004 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050105155019/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/jupiter_worldbook.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=January 5, 2005 | title=Jupiter | publisher=World Book @ NASA | access-date=August 10, 2006 }}</ref>。 |
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木星有低[[轉軸傾角]],令兩極收到嘅太陽輻射比木星嘅赤道區域少。行星內部對流,將能量輸送到兩極,平衡雲層嘅溫度<ref name="burgess" />{{rp|54}}。 |
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====大紅斑同其他氣旋==== |
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木星有個出名特徵,叫[[大紅斑]]<ref name="NYT-20171213"/>,佢係一個喺赤道以南 22° 嘅持續性[[反氣旋]]風暴。佢喺1831年就確定存在<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=William F. |author-link=William Frederick Denning|title=Jupiter, early history of the great red spot on |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |year=1899 |volume=59 |issue=10 |pages=574–584 |bibcode=1899MNRAS..59..574D |doi=10.1093/mnras/59.10.574|doi-access=free }}</ref>,甚至喺 1665 年就有記載<ref name="kyrala26">{{cite journal |last=Kyrala |first=A. |title=An explanation of the persistence of the Great Red Spot of Jupiter |journal=Moon and the Planets |year=1982 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=105–107 |bibcode=1982M&P....26..105K |doi=10.1007/BF00941374|s2cid=121637752 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/28758/28758-h/28758-h.htm | title=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society | editor-first=Henry | editor-last=Oldenburg | volume=1 | date=1665–1666 | publisher=Project Gutenberg | access-date=2011-12-22 }}</ref>。[[哈勃太空望遠鏡]]影嘅相顯示大紅斑附近仲有兩個「紅斑」<ref>{{cite web |title=New Red Spot Appears on Jupiter |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/23/image/a/ |last1=Wong|first1=M.|last2=de Pater|first2=I.|website=HubbleSite |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=May 22, 2008|access-date=December 12, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Three Red Spots Mix It Up on Jupiter |url=http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2008/27/image/a/ |last1=Simon-Miller|first1=A.|last2=Chanover|first2=N.|last3=Orton|first3=G.|website=HubbleSite |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 17, 2008|access-date=April 26, 2015}}</ref>。通過[[口徑]] 12 cm以上嘅地球望遠鏡可以睇到大紅斑<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael A. |last=Covington |date=2002 |title=Celestial Objects for Modern Telescopes |page=[https://archive.org/details/celestialobjects00covi/page/53 53] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52419-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/celestialobjects00covi/page/53 }}</ref>。風暴以逆時針旋轉,週期大約六日<ref>{{cite web | last1=Cardall | first1=C. Y. | last2=Daunt | first2=S. J. | url=http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/jupiter/redspot.html | title=The Great Red Spot | publisher=University of Tennessee | access-date=February 2, 2007 }}</ref>。個風暴最高大約高過雲頂 8 公里<ref>{{cite book | title=Jupiter, the Giant of the Solar System | page=5 | publisher=NASA | date=1979 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuBYXLt4K9MC&pg=PA5 }}</ref>。一啲模型表明風暴可能穩定,並可能永久喺恆星上面<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/331689a0 |
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|title=Laboratory simulation of Jupiter's Great Red Spot |first=Jöel|last=Sommeria |first2=Steven D.|last2=Meyers |first3=Harry L.|last3=Swinney |journal=Nature|volume=331 |issue=6158|pages=689–693 |bibcode=1988Natur.331..689S |date=1988-02-25}}</ref>。 |
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大紅斑大過地球<ref name="sp.news20151125">{{cite news |url=http://space.news/2015-11-25-is-jupiters-great-red-spot-nearing-its-twilight.html |title=Is Jupiter's Great Red Spot nearing its twilight? |work=Space.news |first=Greg |last=White |date=November 25, 2015 |access-date=April 13, 2017}}</ref>,但自被發現以來,佢嘅[[尺寸]]越來越細,喺1800年代末長41,000公里,去到2015年得番大約16,500公里<ref name="Simon2015">{{cite conference |title=Dramatic Change in Jupiter's Great Red Spot |conference=46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. March 16–20, 2015. The Woodlands, Texas. |first1=Amy A. |last1=Simon | last2=Wong | first2=M. H. | last3=Rogers | first3=J. H. | last4=Orton | first4=G. S. | last5=de Pater | first5=I. | last6=Asay-Davis | first6=X. | last7=Carlson | first7=R. W. | last8=Marcus | first8=P. S. | date=March 2015 |bibcode=2015LPI....46.1010S}}</ref>,而且每年減少930公里<ref name="sp.news20151125" /><ref name="techtimes20151021">{{cite news |url=http://www.techtimes.com/articles/97643/20151021/jupiters-superstorm-is-shrinking-is-changing-red-spot-evidence-of-climate-change.htm |title=Jupiter's Superstorm Is Shrinking: Is Changing Red Spot Evidence Of Climate Change? |work=Tech Times |first=Rina Marie |last=Doctor |date=October 21, 2015 |access-date=April 13, 2017}}</ref>。 |
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朱諾號顯示木星兩極有多個極地氣旋群,北極有9個,由八個細嘅圍住一個大嘅,而南極就由五個大風暴同一個細風暴圍住中間嘅風暴,加埋有7個風暴<ref name=Adriani_et_al_2018>{{cite journal| title=Clusters of cyclones encircling Jupiter's poles| last1=Adriani | first1=Alberto | last2=Mura | first2=A. | last3=Orton | first3=G. | last4=Hansen | first4=C. | last5=Altieri | first5=F. | last6=Moriconi | first6=M. L. | last7=Rogers | first7=J. | last8=Eichstädt | first8=G. | last9=Momary | first9=T. | last10=Ingersoll | first10=A. P. | last11=Filacchione | first11=G. | last12=Sindoni | first12=G. | last13=Tabataba-Vakili | first13=F. | last14=Dinelli | first14=B. M. | last15=Fabiano | first15=F. | last16=Bolton | first16=S. J. | last17=Connerney | first17=J. E. P. | last18=Atreya | first18=S. K. | last19=Lunine | first19=J. I. | last20=Tosi | first20=F. | last21=Migliorini | first21=A. | last22=Grassi | first22=D. | last23=Piccioni | first23=G. | last24=Noschese | first24=R. | last25=Cicchetti | first25=A. | last26=Plainaki | first26=C. | last27=Olivieri | first27=A. | last28=O'Neill | first28=M. E. | last29=Turrini | first29=D. | last30=Stefani | first30=S. | last31=Sordini | first31=R. | last32=Amoroso | first32=M. | display-authors=5 | journal=Nature |volume=555 |issue=7695 |pages=216–219|date=March 2018 |doi=10.1038/nature25491 |pmid=29516997 | bibcode=2018Natur.555..216A| s2cid=4438233 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=NASA Just Watched a Mass of Cyclones on Jupiter Evolve Into a Mesmerising Hexagon| url=https://www.sciencealert.com/june-watched-a-pentagon-of-storms-on-jupiter-evolve-into-a-hexagon|last=Starr |first=Michelle | date=December 13, 2017 |website=Science Alert}}</ref>。 |
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2000年,木星南半球出現咗個細個大紅斑嘅大氣特徵,由三個細啲嘅白色風暴組合而成,之後,佢由白色變做紅色,並被叫做「小紅斑」<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Steigerwald |date=October 14, 2006 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/little_red_spot.html |title=Jupiter's Little Red Spot Growing Stronger |publisher=NASA |access-date=February 2, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Vertical structure of Jupiter's Oval BA before and after it reddened: What changed? | last1=Wong | first1=Michael H. | last2=de Pater | first2=Imke | last3=Asay-Davis | first3=Xylar | last4=Marcus | first4=Philip S. | last5=Go | first5=Christopher Y. | journal=Icarus | volume=215 | issue=1 |pages=211–225 | date=September 2011 | doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.032 | bibcode=2011Icar..215..211W | url=http://cfd.me.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/wong-publlished-1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cfd.me.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/wong-publlished-1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | access-date=2022-04-27 }}</ref>。 |
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2017年,喺木星北極熱層發現咗「大凍斑」,直徑24,000 公里,闊12,000公里,溫度比周圍低200[[攝氏|°C]]。「大凍斑」嘅形式同強度會有短期變化,但位置喺15年來冇變<ref name="Stallard et Al., 2017">{{cite journal |title=The Great Cold Spot in Jupiter's upper atmosphere |journal=Geophysical Research Letters | last1=Stallard | first1=Tom S. | last2=Melin | first2=Henrik | last3=Miller | first3=Steve | last4=Moore | first4=Luke | last5=O'Donoghue | first5=James | last6=Connerney | first6=John E. P. | last7=Satoh | first7=Takehiko | last8=West | first8=Robert A. | last9=Thayer | first9=Jeffrey P. | last10=Hsu | first10=Vicki W. | last11=Johnson | first11=Rosie E. | volume=44 | issue=7 | pages=3000–3008 | date=April 10, 2017 | doi=10.1002/2016GL071956 | pmid=28603321 | pmc=5439487 | bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.3000S}}</ref>。 |
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===磁層=== |
===磁層=== |
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==軌道和自轉== |
==軌道和自轉== |
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[[File:Solar system orrery outer planets.gif|left|thumb|木星同其他[[外太陽系]]行星嘅軌道]] |
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木星係[[太陽系]]唯一一個同[[太陽]]嘅[[重心]]喺太陽本體之外,但都只喺太陽半徑以外7%<ref>{{cite book | last1=Herbst | first1=T. M. | last2=Rix | first2=H.-W. | date=1999 | editor1-last=Guenther | editor1-first=Eike | editor2-last=Stecklum | editor2-first=Bringfried | editor3-last=Klose | editor3-first=Sylvio | chapter=Star Formation and Extrasolar Planet Studies with Near-Infrared Interferometry on the LBT | title=Optical and Infrared Spectroscopy of Circumstellar Matter | series=ASP Conference Series | volume=188 | isbn=978-1-58381-014-9 | pages=341–350 | bibcode=1999ASPC..188..341H | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | publication-place=San Francisco, Calif. }} – See section 3.4.</ref><ref name="Jupiter-COM-20160730">{{cite book |page=199|title=Newton's Gravity: An Introductory Guide to the Mechanics of the Universe|last1=MacDougal|first1=Douglas W.|date=December 16, 2012|isbn=978-1-4614-5444-1|publisher=Springer New York}}</ref>。木星同太陽嘅平均距離係7.78億公里,即係5.2個[[天文單位]],每11.86年[[公轉]]一周,大約係[[土星]]嘅五分之二,形成近[[軌道共振]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Michtchenko | first1=T. A. | last2=Ferraz-Mello | first2=S. | title=Modeling the 5:2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter–Saturn Planetary System | journal=Icarus | date=February 2001 | volume=149 | issue=2 | pages=77–115 | doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6539 | bibcode=2001Icar..149..357M }}</ref>。木星嘅[[軌道平面]]比地球斜1.30°。因為佢有0.049嘅[[軌道離心率|離心率]],木星嘅[[遠日點]]比[[近日點]]遠大約7500萬公里<ref name="fact" />。系外行星嘅發現證實咗有高偏心率嘅[[類木行星]],同木星嘅低偏心率唔一樣。模型表明噉係因為太陽系只有兩粒類木行星,而有更多嘅話可能會提高偏心率<ref>{{cite web|title=Simulations explain giant exoplanets with eccentric, close-in orbits|date=October 30, 2019|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191030132730.htm#:~:text=Surprisingly%2C%20the%20planets%20with%20the,budge%20from%20its%20initial%20orbit.|publisher=ScienceDaily|accessdate=2023-07-17}}</ref>。 |
木星係[[太陽系]]唯一一個同[[太陽]]嘅[[重心]]喺太陽本體之外,但都只喺太陽半徑以外7%<ref>{{cite book | last1=Herbst | first1=T. M. | last2=Rix | first2=H.-W. | date=1999 | editor1-last=Guenther | editor1-first=Eike | editor2-last=Stecklum | editor2-first=Bringfried | editor3-last=Klose | editor3-first=Sylvio | chapter=Star Formation and Extrasolar Planet Studies with Near-Infrared Interferometry on the LBT | title=Optical and Infrared Spectroscopy of Circumstellar Matter | series=ASP Conference Series | volume=188 | isbn=978-1-58381-014-9 | pages=341–350 | bibcode=1999ASPC..188..341H | publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific | publication-place=San Francisco, Calif. }} – See section 3.4.</ref><ref name="Jupiter-COM-20160730">{{cite book |page=199|title=Newton's Gravity: An Introductory Guide to the Mechanics of the Universe|last1=MacDougal|first1=Douglas W.|date=December 16, 2012|isbn=978-1-4614-5444-1|publisher=Springer New York}}</ref>。木星同太陽嘅平均距離係7.78億公里,即係5.2個[[天文單位]],每11.86年[[公轉]]一周,大約係[[土星]]嘅五分之二,形成近[[軌道共振]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Michtchenko | first1=T. A. | last2=Ferraz-Mello | first2=S. | title=Modeling the 5:2 Mean-Motion Resonance in the Jupiter–Saturn Planetary System | journal=Icarus | date=February 2001 | volume=149 | issue=2 | pages=77–115 | doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6539 | bibcode=2001Icar..149..357M }}</ref>。木星嘅[[軌道平面]]比地球斜1.30°。因為佢有0.049嘅[[軌道離心率|離心率]],木星嘅[[遠日點]]比[[近日點]]遠大約7500萬公里<ref name="fact" />。系外行星嘅發現證實咗有高偏心率嘅[[類木行星]],同木星嘅低偏心率唔一樣。模型表明噉係因為太陽系只有兩粒類木行星,而有更多嘅話可能會提高偏心率<ref>{{cite web|title=Simulations explain giant exoplanets with eccentric, close-in orbits|date=October 30, 2019|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191030132730.htm#:~:text=Surprisingly%2C%20the%20planets%20with%20the,budge%20from%20its%20initial%20orbit.|publisher=ScienceDaily|accessdate=2023-07-17}}</ref>。 |
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==觀測== |
==觀測== |
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木星通常係夜晚成個天入面第四光嘅[[天體]](僅次[[太陽]]、[[月球]]同[[金星]])<ref name="worldbook" |
木星通常係夜晚成個天入面第四光嘅[[天體]](僅次[[太陽]]、[[月球]]同[[金星]])<ref name="worldbook"/>。根據木星喺地球望落去嘅位置,佢嘅[[視星等]]可能會唔同<ref name="Mallama_and_Hilton">{{cite journal | last1=Mallama | first1=A. | last2=Hilton | first2=J. L. |title=Computing Apparent Planetary Magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac |journal=Astronomy and Computing |volume=25 | pages=10–24 |year=2018 |doi=10.1016/j.ascom.2018.08.002 |bibcode=2018A&C....25...10M|arxiv=1808.01973 |s2cid=69912809 }}</ref>。平均視星等係−2.20,標準差係0.33<ref name="Mallama_and_Hilton" />。當木星穿過近日點嗰陣,會發生{{link-zh|衝|衝 (天體位置)}},令佢更近地球<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Appendix 3|title=The giant planet Jupiter|last1=Rogers|first1=John H.|date=July 20, 1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41008-3}}</ref>。接近衝嗰陣,木星會進入121日嘅逆行狀態,向後移動 9.9° ,然後返到順行狀態<ref>{{cite book | title=The Planet Observer's Handbook | first=Fred W. | last=Price | date=October 26, 2000 | page=140 | isbn=978-0-521-78981-3 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnrAVhVZ3wMC&pg=PA140 }}</ref>。 |
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因為木星軌道喺地球軌道出面,因此從地球睇木星嘅[[相位角]]始終小於11.5°;因此,當通過地球望遠鏡觀察嗰陣,木星成日被照到幾乎光哂噉。只有接近木星嘅航天器可以影到新月形嘅木星<ref>{{cite book | title=Pioneer Odyssey | url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/sp349.htm | first1=Richard O. | last1=Fimmel | first2=William | last2=Swindell | first3=Eric | last3=Burgess | year=1974 | edition=Revised | chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm | chapter=8. Encounter with the Giant | publisher=NASA History Office | access-date=February 17, 2007}}</ref>。小型[[望遠鏡]]通常會睇到木星嘅[[伽利略衛星]]同橫跨木星大氣層嘅雲帶。4-6 英寸[[口徑]]嘅望遠鏡會喺木星面對地球嗰陣睇到[[大紅斑]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Outer Planets | page=47 | first=Glenn F. | last=Chaple | date=2009 | isbn=978-0-313-36571-3 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=Greenwood Guides to the Universe | editor1-first=Lauren V. | editor1-last=Jones | editor2-first=Timothy F. | editor2-last=Slater | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KXACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Sky at Night: How to Read the Solar System | last1=North | first1=Chris | last2=Abel | first2=Paul | date=October 31, 2013 | page=183 | publisher=Ebury Publishing | isbn=978-1-4481-4130-2 |
因為木星軌道喺地球軌道出面,因此從地球睇木星嘅[[相位角]]始終小於11.5°;因此,當通過地球望遠鏡觀察嗰陣,木星成日被照到幾乎光哂噉。只有接近木星嘅航天器可以影到新月形嘅木星<ref>{{cite book | title=Pioneer Odyssey | url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/sp349.htm | first1=Richard O. | last1=Fimmel | first2=William | last2=Swindell | first3=Eric | last3=Burgess | year=1974 | edition=Revised | chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.htm | chapter=8. Encounter with the Giant | publisher=NASA History Office | access-date=February 17, 2007}}</ref>。小型[[望遠鏡]]通常會睇到木星嘅[[伽利略衛星]]同橫跨木星大氣層嘅雲帶。4-6 英寸[[口徑]]嘅望遠鏡會喺木星面對地球嗰陣睇到[[大紅斑]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Outer Planets | page=47 | first=Glenn F. | last=Chaple | date=2009 | isbn=978-0-313-36571-3 | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=Greenwood Guides to the Universe | editor1-first=Lauren V. | editor1-last=Jones | editor2-first=Timothy F. | editor2-last=Slater | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KXACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Sky at Night: How to Read the Solar System | last1=North | first1=Chris | last2=Abel | first2=Paul | date=October 31, 2013 | page=183 | publisher=Ebury Publishing | isbn=978-1-4481-4130-2 |
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==探測史== |
==探測史== |
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至少喺公元前7至8世紀,古[[巴比倫]]已經有對木星嘅觀測<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Babylonian Observational Astronomy |author= Sachs|first=A. |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=May 2, 1974 |pages=43–50 (see p. 44) |jstor=74273 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0008 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...43S|s2cid=121539390 }}</ref>。中國人將木星叫做歲星,並因應木星軌道週期而建立十二[[地支]],並喺4世紀發展成[[十二生肖]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=Homer H. |last=Dubs |author-link=Homer H. Dubs |title=The Beginnings of Chinese Astronomy |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=78 |number=4 |year=1958 |pages=295–300 |doi=10.2307/595793|jstor=595793 }}</ref>。古代中國天文學家[[甘德]]話有粒小星星同木星「結盟」<ref>{{cite book | chapter=Facts, Fallacies, Unusual Observations, and Other Miscellaneous Gleanings | title=Weird Astronomy: Tales of Unusual, Bizarre, and Other Hard to Explain Observations | first=David A. J. | last=Seargent | pages=221–282 | isbn=978-1-4419-6424-3 | series=Astronomers' Universe | date=September 24, 2010 }}</ref>,可能係因為佢用[[肉眼觀察]]睇到木星其中一粒衛星。如果屬實,噉會比[[伽利略]]嘅發現早兩千年<ref>{{cite journal |last=Xi |first=Z. Z. |title=The Discovery of Jupiter's Satellite Made by Gan-De 2000 Years Before Galileo |journal=Acta Astrophysica Sinica |year=1981 |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=87 |bibcode=1981AcApS...1...85X}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Dong |date=2002 |title=China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic |publisher=China Books |isbn=978-0-8351-2676-2}}</ref>。 |
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古[[希臘]]天文學家[[托勒密]]喺《[[天文學大成]]》基於均輪同本輪起咗個行星模型,以解釋木星相對地球嘅運動,得出木星繞地球嘅周期4332.38日,即係11.86年<ref>{{cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Olaf |title=A Survey of the Almagest |date=1974 |publisher=Odense University Press |isbn=9788774920878 |pages=423, 428}}</ref>。 |
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1610年,[[伽利略]]發現咗四粒衛星(而家叫[[伽利略衛星]]),係證明[[哥白尼]]嘅[[日心說]]嘅證據,噉令伽利略受到[[羅馬教廷]]嘅壓迫<ref>{{cite web | last=Westfall | first=Richard S. | url=http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/galilei_gal.html | title=Galilei, Galileo | work=The Galileo Project | publisher=Rice University | access-date=January 10, 2007}}</ref>。 |
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[[大紅斑]]可能早喺1664年就畀[[羅拔虎克]]觀測到,但喺1831年先由{{link-en|Heinrich Schwabe}}畫咗第一幅展示大紅斑細節嘅畫<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Murdin |date=2000 |title=Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics |publisher=Institute of Physics Publishing |location=Bristol |isbn=978-0-12-226690-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000unse_w5z7 }}</ref>。據報道,大紅斑喺1665年至1708年<ref>{{cite book | title=The giant planet Jupiter | first=John H. | last=Rogers | date=1995 | pages=188–189 | isbn=978-0-521-41008-3 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SO48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA188}}</ref>、1883年同20世紀初多次消失<ref>{{cite book | edition=Revised | first1=Richard O. | last1=Fimmel | first2=William | last2=Swindell | first3=Eric | last3=Burgess | date=August 1974 | chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch1.htm | chapter=Jupiter, Giant of the Solar System | title=Pioneer Odyssey | publisher=NASA History Office | access-date=August 10, 2006}}</ref>。 |
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1670年代,[[卡西尼]]發現衛星經過木星前後嘅時間比預期慢17分鐘,所以[[奧勒·羅默]]認為光唔會即刻傳到某個地方(卡西尼唔認同)<ref name="cassini" />,並以呢個時間差來估計[[光速]]<ref>{{cite web | first=Kevin | last=Brown | date=2004 |url=http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath203/kmath203.htm |title=Roemer's Hypothesis |publisher=MathPages |access-date=January 12, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Cassini, Rømer, and the velocity of light | last1=Bobis | first1=Laurence | last2=Lequeux | first2=James | journal=Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=97–105 | date=July 2008 | doi=10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2008.02.02 | bibcode=2008JAHH...11...97B | s2cid=115455540 }}</ref>。 |
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[[File:Portrait of Jupiter from Cassini.jpg|thumb|left|[[卡西尼-惠更斯號|卡西尼號]]影嘅木星]] |
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1892年,[[愛德華·愛默生·巴納德]]發現[[木衛五]],後來被命名做Amalthea<ref>{{cite web |first=Joe |last=Tenn |date=March 10, 2006 |url=http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Barnard/ |title=Edward Emerson Barnard |publisher=Sonoma State University |access-date=January 10, 2007 |archive-date=September 17, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917023559/http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Barnard/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>。佢係最後一個用[[肉眼觀察]][[望遠鏡]]而睇到嘅行星衛星<ref>{{cite web |date=October 1, 2001 |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/education/teacherres-amalthea.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011124022331/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/education/teacherres-amalthea.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 24, 2001 |title=Amalthea Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=February 21, 2007 }}</ref>。1938年,有三個反氣旋特徵被發現,並被叫做"white ovals",有兩個喺1998年合併,並喺2000年吸收埋第三個,叫 Oval BA<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Youssef | first1=A. | last2=Marcus | first2=P. S. | title=The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger | journal=Icarus | year=2003 | volume=162 | issue=1 | pages=74–93 | bibcode=2003Icar..162...74Y | doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00060-X }}</ref>。 |
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1955年,Bernard Burke 同 Kenneth Franklin 發現木星會發射22.2 mHz頻率嘅無線電波爆發,佢哋用爆發嘅周期來確定木星自轉速率<ref name="elkins-tanton" />{{rp|36}}。 |
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由1973年開始就有[[太空探測器]]去訪問木星,[[先鋒10號]]喺最近木星嗰陣並傳咗關於木星特性同現象嘅資料<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html | title=The Pioneer Missions | publisher=NASA | date=March 26, 2007 | access-date=February 26, 2021 | archive-date=December 23, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223151213/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/missions/archive/pioneer.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=NASA Glenn Pioneer Launch History | date=March 7, 2003 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/pioneer.html | publisher=NASA – Glenn Research Center | access-date=December 22, 2011 | archive-date=July 13, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713041117/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/pioneer.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>。喺呢一年之後,一啲太空探測器進行咗行星飛越並觀測木星。先鋒10同11號獲得咗木星大氣層同佢嘅幾粒衞星嘅特寫圖像,佢哋仲發現咗木星週圍嘅幅射比預期勁好多<ref name="burgess" />{{rp|47}}<ref name="cosmology 101">{{cite web |last=Lasher |first=Lawrence |date=August 1, 2006 |url=http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html |title=Pioneer Project Home Page |publisher=NASA Space Projects Division |access-date=November 28, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101001205/http://spaceprojects.arc.nasa.gov/Space_Projects/pioneer/PNhome.html |archive-date=January 1, 2006 }}</ref>。 |
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{| class="wikitable floatright" |
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|+ |
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|- |
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! 太空探測器 |
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! 最近木星嗰陣 |
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! 距離(km) |
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|- |
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| [[先鋒10號]] |
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| 1973年12月3號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 130,000 |
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|- |
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| [[先鋒11號]] |
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| 1974年12月4號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 34,000 |
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|- |
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| [[航行者1號]] |
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| 1979年3月5號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 349,000 |
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|- |
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| [[航行者2號]] |
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| 1979年7月9號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 570,000 |
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|- |
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| rowspan="2" | [[尤利西斯號]] |
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| 1992年2月8號<ref name="ulysses" /> |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 408,894 |
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|- |
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| 2004年2月4號<ref name="ulysses" /> |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 120,000,000 |
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|- |
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| [[卡西尼-惠更斯號|卡西尼號]] |
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| 2000年12月30號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 10,000,000 |
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|- |
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| [[新視野號]] |
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| 2007年2月28號 |
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| style="text-align: right;" | 2,304,535 |
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|} |
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1979年,[[航行者計劃|航行者任務]]令人類對[[伽利略衛星]]了解更多,仲發現咗[[木星環]],又證實咗大紅斑係反氣旋而且同先鋒號嘅相對比之下由橙色變咗做深啡色<ref name="burgess" />{{rp|87}}<ref name="voyager1">{{cite web |date=January 14, 2003 |url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/jupiter.html |title=Jupiter |publisher=NASA/JPL |access-date=November 28, 2006 |archive-date=June 28, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628073053/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/jupiter.html |url-status=live }}</ref>。 |
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尤利西斯係下一個同木星相遇嘅太空探測器。佢研究咗木星嘅磁層<ref name="ulysses">{{Cite book | last1=Chan | first1=K. | title=Space OPS 2004 Conference | last2=Paredes | first2=E. S. | last3=Ryne | first3=M. S. | date=2004 | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | doi=10.2514/6.2004-650-447 | chapter=Ulysses Attitude and Orbit Operations: 13+ Years of International Cooperation }}</ref>。2000年,[[卡西尼號]]飛越木星,提供咗更高[[解像度]]嘅相<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Hansen | first1=C. J. | last2=Bolton | first2=S. J. | last3=Matson | first3=D. L. | last4=Spilker | first4=L. J. | last5=Lebreton | first5=J.-P. |title=The Cassini–Huygens flyby of Jupiter |bibcode=2004Icar..172....1H |journal=Icarus |year=2004 |volume=172 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.06.018}}</ref>。之後,[[新視野號]]喺2007年飛越木星,木星嘅[[重力助推]]協助佢去[[冥王星]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/nh_jupiter_oct09.html | date=October 9, 2007 | publisher=NASA | title=Pluto-Bound New Horizons Sees Changes in Jupiter System | access-date=February 26, 2021 | archive-date=November 27, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127014401/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/nh_jupiter_oct09.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>,新視野號度咗木衞一火山嘅[[等離子體]]輸出,並詳細研究咗所有伽利略衛星<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/jupiter_system.html | title=Pluto-Bound New Horizons Provides New Look at Jupiter System | date=May 1, 2007 | publisher=NASA | access-date=July 27, 2007 | archive-date=December 12, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212052748/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/news/jupiter_system.html | url-status=dead }}</ref>。 |
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[[朱諾號]]喺2016年7月4號到木星,目標係要由極地軌道研究木星,並打算喺廿個月內繞住木星行三十七個圈<ref>{{cite web | first=Anthony | last=Goodeill | date=March 31, 2008 | url=http://newfrontiers.nasa.gov/missions_juno.html | title=New Frontiers – Missions – Juno | publisher=NASA | access-date=January 2, 2007 | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203235637/http://newfrontiers.nasa.gov/missions_juno.html | archive-date=February 3, 2007 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20160705" /><ref>{{cite web | title=Juno, NASA's Jupiter probe | publisher=The Planetary Society | url=https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno | access-date=2022-04-27 | archive-date=May 12, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512174710/https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/juno | url-status=live }}</ref>,喺任務期間,太空探測器可能會因為木星磁層嘅幅射而令儀器故障<ref>{{cite web | title=NASA's Juno spacecraft to risk Jupiter's fireworks for science | author=Jet Propulsion Laboratory | date=June 17, 2016 | website=phys.org | url=https://phys.org/news/2016-06-nasa-juno-spacecraft-jupiter-fireworks.html | access-date=2022-04-10 | archive-date=August 9, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809222951/https://phys.org/news/2016-06-nasa-juno-spacecraft-jupiter-fireworks.html | url-status=live }}</ref>。8月27號,朱諾號首次飛越木星並傳回咗第一張木星北極嘅相<ref>{{cite web |first=Niall |last=Firth |date=September 5, 2016 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2104558-nasas-juno-probe-snaps-first-images-of-jupiters-north-pole/ |title=NASA's Juno probe snaps first images of Jupiter's north pole |work=New Scientist |access-date=September 5, 2016 |archive-date=September 6, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160906173136/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2104558-nasas-juno-probe-snaps-first-images-of-jupiters-north-pole/ |url-status=live }}</ref>。2018年6月,NASA將任務由同年7月延長到2021年7月,2021年1月又延長到2025年9月,並飛越咗一次木衛三,一次木衛二同兩次木衛一<ref name="nasa20180606">{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2018-130 |title=NASA Re-plans Juno's Jupiter Mission |publisher=NASA/JPL |first1=D. C. |last1=Agle |first2=JoAnna |last2=Wendel |first3=Deb |last3=Schmid |date=June 6, 2018 |access-date=January 5, 2019 |archive-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724112957/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2018-130 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nasa20210108">{{Cite web|last=Talbert|first=Tricia|date=January 8, 2021|title=NASA Extends Exploration for Two Planetary Science Missions|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-two-planetary-science-missions|access-date=January 11, 2021|website=NASA|archive-date=January 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111161636/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-extends-exploration-for-two-planetary-science-missions/|url-status=live}}</ref>。之後,佢會受控進入木星大氣入面分解,避免撞入衛星<ref name="skytel20170221">{{cite news |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/juno-stay-current-orbit-jupiter/ |title=Juno Will Stay in Current Orbit Around Jupiter |work=Sky & Telescope |first=David |last=Dickinson |date=February 21, 2017 |access-date=January 7, 2018 |archive-date=January 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108063357/http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/juno-stay-current-orbit-jupiter/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="insider20160705">{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-juno-probe-will-crash-into-jupiter-2016-7 |title=To protect potential alien life, NASA will destroy its $1 billion Jupiter spacecraft on purpose |work=Business Insider |first=Meghan |last=Bartels |date=July 5, 2016 |access-date=January 7, 2018 |archive-date=January 8, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108063654/http://www.businessinsider.com/the-juno-probe-will-crash-into-jupiter-2016-7 |url-status=live }}</ref>。 |
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班科學家想研究木星嘅冰衛星,因為佢哋可能有地下液態海洋<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sori |first=Mike |title=Jupiter's moons hide giant subsurface oceans – two missions are sending spacecraft to see if these moons could support life |url=http://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207 |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=The Conversation |date=April 10, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512042246/http://theconversation.com/jupiters-moons-hide-giant-subsurface-oceans-two-missions-are-sending-spacecraft-to-see-if-these-moons-could-support-life-203207 |url-status=live }}</ref>。但試過開發嘅太空探測器JIMO同EJSM/Laplace都因為唔夠錢而放棄<ref>{{cite news |first=Brian |last=Berger |title=White House scales back space plans |publisher=MSNBC |date=February 7, 2005 |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6928404/ |access-date=January 2, 2007 |archive-date=October 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210930/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/6928404/ |url-status=live }}</ref>。之後,呢啲計劃由歐洲太空總署嘅木星冰月探測器(JUICE)喺2023年4月14號發射而實現<ref name="bbc-20230214">{{Cite news|date=14 April 2023|title=European Space Agency: Blast off for Jupiter icy moons mission|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65273857|access-date=14 April 2023|archive-date=April 14, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414114037/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65273857|url-status=live}}</ref>,而NASA都計劃喺2024年發射歐羅巴快船<ref>{{cite web|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=https://spacenews.com/cost-growth-prompts-changes-to-europa-clipper-instruments/|title=Cost growth prompts changes to Europa Clipper instruments|work=Space News|date=July 10, 2020|access-date=July 10, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929074855/https://spacenews.com/cost-growth-prompts-changes-to-europa-clipper-instruments/|url-status=live}}</ref>。 |
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==衛星== |
==衛星== |
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==文化== |
==文化== |
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木星喺夜晚好容易以[[肉眼]]睇到,即使喺[[日頭]]有陣時都會睇到,所以自古以來就為人所知<ref>{{cite news |
木星喺夜晚好容易以[[肉眼觀察]]睇到,即使喺[[日頭]]有陣時都會睇到,所以自古以來就為人所知<ref>{{cite news |
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[[Category:木星| ]] |
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{{天文楔}} |
喺 2024年2月16號 (五) 08:36 嘅最新修訂
木星外觀 | |||||||||||||||
編號 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
發音 | /ˈdʒuːpɪtər/ ( | ||||||||||||||
軌道參數[5][a] | |||||||||||||||
曆元 J2000 | |||||||||||||||
遠日點 | 104 AU ( 5.458520800 km) 816 | ||||||||||||||
近日點 | 429 AU ( 4.950573600 km) 740 | ||||||||||||||
半長軸 | 267 AU ( 5.204547200 km) 778 | ||||||||||||||
離心率 | 775 0.048 | ||||||||||||||
軌道週期 | |||||||||||||||
會合週期 | 398.88 日[3] | ||||||||||||||
平均速度 | 13.07 公里/秒[3] | ||||||||||||||
平近點角 | 18.818° | ||||||||||||||
軌道傾角 | |||||||||||||||
升交點黃經 | 100.492° | ||||||||||||||
近日點參數 | 275.066° | ||||||||||||||
衛星 | 95 (截至2023年[update]) | ||||||||||||||
物理特徵 | |||||||||||||||
平均半徑 | 911±6 km 69[6][b] | ||||||||||||||
赤道半徑 | |||||||||||||||
極半徑 | |||||||||||||||
扁率 | 87±0.00015 0.064 | ||||||||||||||
表面積 | |||||||||||||||
體積 | |||||||||||||||
質量 | |||||||||||||||
平均密度 | 1.326 g/cm3[3][b] | ||||||||||||||
表面重力 | m/s2 24.79 [3][b] 2.528 g | ||||||||||||||
逃逸速度 | 59.5 km/s[3][b] | ||||||||||||||
恒星自轉週期 | 9.925 h[9] (9 h 55 m 30 s) | ||||||||||||||
赤道自轉速度 | 12.6 km/s 300 km/h 45 | ||||||||||||||
轉軸傾角 | 3.13°[3] | ||||||||||||||
北極赤經 | 268.057° 17時 52分 14秒[6] | ||||||||||||||
北極赤緯 | 64.496°[6] | ||||||||||||||
反照率 | 0.343 (Bond) 0.52 (geom.)[3] | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
視星等 | 到 −1.6 −2.94[3] | ||||||||||||||
角直徑 | 29.8″到50.1″[3] | ||||||||||||||
大氣[3] | |||||||||||||||
表面氣壓 | 20–200 kPa[10] (cloud layer) | ||||||||||||||
大氣標高 | 27 km | ||||||||||||||
成分 | by volume:
冰: | ||||||||||||||
木星,又叫歲星,係太陽系八大行星入面最大嘅行星,係由內數到外第五粒行星[11]。木星屬於氣體大行星,同土星、天王星、海王星一樣,木星繞太陽運行,平均距離太陽5.2 AU,軌道週期11.86年[2]。木星係地球夜晚睇到嘅第三光嘅天體,只係暗過月球同金星[12][13]。
古時中國叫佢做「歲星」[14],因為佢公轉大約12年,同地支一個循環差唔多,並產生咗歲星紀年法:歲星出沒嘅時候,古時人望住個天睇佢嘅位置,並用佢來紀年。西方叫佢做朱庇特(Jupiter)[15],源自羅馬神話入面嘅眾神之王,等同希臘神話嘅宙斯。
木星嘅質量係地球嘅318倍,亦係太陽系所有其他行星加埋嘅2.5倍[16],但就只係太陽嘅千分之一,佢亦係太陽系第二多衛星嘅行星(已知有95粒[17]),同埋自轉最快嘅行星(9.925個鐘[9])。
木星有光環,不過就唔容易睇到,喺地上需要現存最大嘅望遠鏡先至可以進行對木星環嘅觀察[18]。木星表面有大大小小嘅風暴,其中最出名嘅風暴係「大紅斑」[19]。
名[編輯]
喺希臘同羅馬文明入面,木星畀命名做佢哋嘅主神 Zeus 同 Jupiter[20]。國際天文學聯會喺1976年正式以 Jupiter 命名呢粒行星,並以神嘅愛人、最愛同後裔命名木星嘅衛星[21]。
形成同遷徙[編輯]
木星畀人認為係太陽系最老嘅行星[22],呢粒行星最初係一個固體核心,然後積累咗佢嘅氣態大氣層,所以木星係喺太陽星雲消散之前形成嘅[23]。形成嘅過程入面,木星嘅質量一路增加到地球質量嘅20倍[22],而大約一半由矽酸鹽、冰同其他重元素成份組成。呢粒不斷增長嘅行星喺3至4百萬年到咗最終質量[22]。
根據「大遷徙假說」,木星喺離太陽大約3.5AU嘅地方開始形成。隨著木星質量增加,同圍繞太陽運行嘅氣盤相互作用以及同土星嘅軌道共振導致佢向內遷移[24][25],之後土星都向內遷移,並且快過木星,直到兩粒行星喺離太陽1.5AU嘅地方被捕獲為3:2平均運動共振[26],之後兩粒行星開始向外移並去到而家嘅位置[27]。木星喺內太陽系嘅遷移最終令內行星從廢墟形成[28]。
物理性質[編輯]
木星係氣體大行星,主要由氣體同液體組成。佢係太陽系最大嘅行星,赤道直徑係142,984 公里,體積係地球嘅1321倍[3][29],平均密度係1.326 g/cm3,低過太陽系所有類地行星[30][31]。
成分[編輯]
跟質量來計嘅話木星嘅大氣大約由76% 氫同24% 氦組成,但氦原子質量大過氫分子,所以跟體積計嘅話,木星嘅高層大氣大約由90% 氫同10% 氦組成[32]。大氣入面仲有微量甲烷、水蒸氣、氨同矽基化合物,以及少量碳、乙烷、硫化氫、氖、氧、磷化氫同硫[33]。大氣最外層有凍結嘅氨晶體[34]。通過紅外線同紫外線測量,仲發現咗微量苯同其他碳氫化合物[35]。木星內部含有密度更大嘅物質,跟質量計嘅話,大約有 71% 嘅氫、24% 嘅氦和 5% 其他元素[36][37]。
大氣入面氫同氦嘅比例接近原始太陽星雲嘅理論成分[38]。高層大氣嘅氖含量得百萬分之二十,大約係太陽入面嘅十分之一[39]。木星嘅氦豐富度大慨係太陽嘅 80%,因為呢啲元素以富氦液滴嘅形式沉澱,並喺木星內部深處發生[40][41]。
根據光譜學,土星嘅成分被認為同木星相似,但係天王星同海王星嘅氫同氦含量相對較少,而喺木星同土星較少嘅元素就相對較多,包括氧、碳、氮同硫[42]。呢啲行星叫冰巨行星,因為佢哋大部分揮發性化合物都係固體[43]。
質量同大細[編輯]
木星嘅質量係地球 318 倍[3],係太陽系其他行星質量總和嘅 2.5 倍。佢嘅質量之大令佢嘅太陽重心喺太陽表面上方,離太陽中心 1.068 個太陽半徑[44] [45]:6。木星嘅半徑大約係太陽半徑嘅十分之一[46],質量係太陽質量嘅千分之一,因為兩個天體密度相似[47]。「木星質量」(MJ/MJup)通常用來描述其他天體質量嘅單位,特別係系外行星同棕矮星。例如,HD 209458 b嘅質量係0.69 MJ,而棕矮星Gliese 229 b嘅質量係60.4 MJ[48][49]。
理論模型話如果木星的質量增加 40% 以上,內部就會被壓縮,即使物質數量增加,體積都會減小。但質量變化較細嘅話,半徑唔會明顯變化[50]。因此,木星被認為有同行星組成同進化歷史去到嘅的直徑噉大嘅直徑[51]。如果隨住質量增加而進一步收縮嘅過程持續落去嘅話,恆星就會形成[52]。即使木星嘅質量要大約 75 倍先可以融合氫並成為恆星[53],佢嘅直徑可能已經夠大,因為最細嘅紅矮星嘅半徑可能只係大過土星小小[54]。
形成嗰陣,木星溫度高過而家,直徑大約係當前直徑嘅兩倍[55]。之後,木星輻射嘅熱量比通過太陽輻射接收嘅熱量多[56]:30[57]。噉令克赫歷程發生,並收縮內部,導致木星每年收縮大約 1 毫米[58][59]。
內部結構[編輯]
科學家針對木星形成有兩種理論:如果行星首先以固體形式吸積,佢會由密度高嘅核心同向外延伸到行星半徑大約 80% 嘅液態金屬氫同一啲氦嘅周圍層組成[60],而外部大氣層就會由分子氫組成[59]。或者,如果行星直接由氣態原行星盤塌陷,噉佢應該冇核心,而係由密度從外圍到中心一路越來越高嘅流體(主要由分子同金屬氫)組成。朱諾號嘅數據顯示,木星有一個混合到地幔入面嘅彌散核心,延伸到木星半徑嘅30-50%,而且包含總質量有地球 7-25 倍嘅重元素[61][62][63][64][65]。
喺金屬氫層出面係透明嘅內部氫大氣層,壓力同溫度高過分子氫嘅臨界壓力 1.3 MPa 同臨界溫度 33 K(−240.2 °C)[66]。喺噉嘅狀態下,冇明顯液相同氣相,所以氫被認為喺超臨界流體狀態。從雲層向下延伸嘅氫氣同氦氣喺更深嘅一層轉變咗做液體,可能同液態氫同其他超臨界流體嘅海洋類似[56]:22[67][68][69]。隨著深度增加,氣體逐漸變得更加熱同稠密[70][71]。
氦同氖嘅雨狀液滴通過低層大氣向下沉澱,消耗咗高層大氣入面呢啲元素嘅豐富度[40][72]。計算表明,氦滴喺半徑60,000 公里處同金屬氫分離,並喺半徑50,000 公里處再次合併[73]。天降鑽石被認為會發生,包括土星[74]同冰巨行星天王星同海王星[75]。
木星內部嘅溫度同壓力向內穩定增加,因為行星形成嘅熱量只能夠通過對流逃逸[41]。喺大氣壓力水平 1 bar (0.10 MPa)嘅表面深度,溫度大約喺 165 K (−108°C)。超臨界氫逐漸由分子流體轉變做金屬流體的區域嘅壓力範圍分別係 50–400 GPa,溫度分別為 5,000–8,400 K(4,730–8,130 °C)。木星稀釋核心嘅溫度估計係喺 19,700 °C(20,000 K),壓力大約係喺 4,000 GPa [76]。
大氣層[編輯]
木星嘅大氣層係太陽系行星入面最大嘅,跨越超過5,000 km 嘅高度[77][78]。木星嘅大氣層會延伸到雲層以下 3,000 km 嘅地方[76]。
雲層[編輯]
木星永遠畀氨晶體雲籠罩,可能仲有硫氫化銨[79]。雲喺大氣層嘅對流層頂,並喺不同緯度形成帶,叫做熱帶區域。呢啲區域分淺同深,並且相互作用導致風暴同湍流出現。喺緯向急流成日有每秒 100 米(360 km/h)嘅風速出現[80]。據觀察,呢啲區域嘅闊度、顏色同強度每年有變化,但佢哋仍然夠穩定到畀科學家命名[45]:6。
雲層大約有 50 公里深,由至少兩層氨雲組成,頂部薄啲同清啲,下層就厚啲。喺木星大氣入面檢測到嘅閃電表明,氨雲下面可能有一層薄水雲[81]。呢啲放電嘅威力可能係地球閃電嘅一千倍[82]。水雲假定會由內部上升嘅熱量驅動,同地球雷暴一樣噉產生雷暴[83]。朱諾號任務揭示咗淺層閃電存在,淺層閃電係源自大氣中相對較高嘅氨水雲[84]。呢啲排放物帶住被冰冚住嘅水氨泥漿「蘑菇團」,並落入大氣深處[85]。喺木星嘅高層大氣入面觀察到高層大氣閃電,仲有持續大約 1.4 毫秒嘅明亮閃光。呢啲因為氫而呈現藍色或粉紅色嘅嘢被叫做“elves”或“sprites”[86][87]。
木星雲層嘅橙色同棕色係因為由內部上升嘅化合物暴露喺來自太陽嘅紫外線,並改變顏色。確切嘅組成仍然唔清楚,但呢啲物質被認為係由磷、硫或可能係由烴組成[56]:39[88]。呢啲化合物叫做發色團,佢哋同下層溫暖嘅雲層混合。當上升對流胞形成結晶氨嗰陣,會形成淺色嘅區域,並遮住咗髮色團[89]。
木星有低轉軸傾角,令兩極收到嘅太陽輻射比木星嘅赤道區域少。行星內部對流,將能量輸送到兩極,平衡雲層嘅溫度[45]:54。
大紅斑同其他氣旋[編輯]
木星有個出名特徵,叫大紅斑[19],佢係一個喺赤道以南 22° 嘅持續性反氣旋風暴。佢喺1831年就確定存在[90],甚至喺 1665 年就有記載[91][92]。哈勃太空望遠鏡影嘅相顯示大紅斑附近仲有兩個「紅斑」[93][94]。通過口徑 12 cm以上嘅地球望遠鏡可以睇到大紅斑[95]。風暴以逆時針旋轉,週期大約六日[96]。個風暴最高大約高過雲頂 8 公里[97]。一啲模型表明風暴可能穩定,並可能永久喺恆星上面[98]。
大紅斑大過地球[99],但自被發現以來,佢嘅尺寸越來越細,喺1800年代末長41,000公里,去到2015年得番大約16,500公里[100],而且每年減少930公里[99][101]。
朱諾號顯示木星兩極有多個極地氣旋群,北極有9個,由八個細嘅圍住一個大嘅,而南極就由五個大風暴同一個細風暴圍住中間嘅風暴,加埋有7個風暴[102][103]。
2000年,木星南半球出現咗個細個大紅斑嘅大氣特徵,由三個細啲嘅白色風暴組合而成,之後,佢由白色變做紅色,並被叫做「小紅斑」[104][105]。
2017年,喺木星北極熱層發現咗「大凍斑」,直徑24,000 公里,闊12,000公里,溫度比周圍低200°C。「大凍斑」嘅形式同強度會有短期變化,但位置喺15年來冇變[106]。
磁層[編輯]
木星嘅磁場係太陽系行星入面最強嘅[89],偶極矩係 4.170 高斯(0.4170 mT),同自轉極傾斜 10.31° 。表面磁場強度由 2 高斯(0.20 mT)到 20 高斯(2.0 mT)都有[107]。磁場被認為係由液態金屬氫核心嘅渦流產生嘅。木星磁層周圍係個磁層頂,喺磁鞘內邊。太陽風同呢啲區域相互作用,拉長木星背風面嘅磁層並向外延伸,差唔多去到土星軌道。伽利略衛星都喺磁層入面行,令佢哋唔使受暴露喺太陽風。[56]:69
木衛一嘅火山噴出大量二氧化硫,沿住軌道形成氣體環面,嗰啲氣體喺木星磁層入面被電離,產生硫離子同氧離子。之後佢哋同來自木星大氣層嘅氫離子喺木星赤道面形成等離子片。薄片嘅等離子體同行星共同旋轉,造成變形偶極磁場。等離子片內的電子會產生範圍喺 0.6–30 MHz 嘅無線電信號,用普通短波無線電接收器都可以喺地球檢測到[108][109]。而木衛一穿過呢個環面嗰陣,相互作用產生咗阿爾芬波,將電離物質帶去木星兩極。之後,無線電波通過迴旋加速器嘅邁射機制同能量沿住錐形表面傳輸出去。當地球同個錐體相交嗰陣,木星嘅無線電輸出可能多過太陽嘅無線電輸出[110]。
行星環[編輯]
木星嘅行星環系統微弱,由顆粒組成嘅內環,比較光嘅主環同外圍嘅薄紗環組成[111],呢啲環大慨由塵埃組成,同土星環用冰組成唔同[56]:65。主環可能係由木衛十五同木衛十六噴出嘅物質組成,呢啲物質受木星引力吸引,軌道繞住木星,後來新的材料被碰撞影響而形成而家嘅環[112]。木衛十四同木衛五可能以相同方式組成薄紗環嘅兩個唔同組成部分[112]。來自木衛五附近嘅碎片可能係來自同木衛五碰撞嘅碎片[113]。
軌道和自轉[編輯]
木星係太陽系唯一一個同太陽嘅重心喺太陽本體之外,但都只喺太陽半徑以外7%[114][115]。木星同太陽嘅平均距離係7.78億公里,即係5.2個天文單位,每11.86年公轉一周,大約係土星嘅五分之二,形成近軌道共振[116]。木星嘅軌道平面比地球斜1.30°。因為佢有0.049嘅離心率,木星嘅遠日點比近日點遠大約7500萬公里[3]。系外行星嘅發現證實咗有高偏心率嘅類木行星,同木星嘅低偏心率唔一樣。模型表明噉係因為太陽系只有兩粒類木行星,而有更多嘅話可能會提高偏心率[117]。
木星嘅軸傾角得3.13,同地球或者火星比,佢嘅季節微不足道[118]。
木星嘅自轉係太陽系入面最快,可以喺十個鐘之內完成自轉,噉會產生一個明顯嘅赤道隆起。因為木星唔係固體,所以佢嘅上層大氣會有差異自轉。木星極地大氣嘅自轉比赤道大氣長5分鐘[119]。木星係扁球體,所以赤道直徑比兩極嘅直徑長9275公里[3]。
有三個系統用來参考木星嘅自轉。系統I喺北緯10度到南緯10度適用,週期係9h50m30.0s。系統II喺所有緯度都適用,週期係9h55m40.6s[120]。系統III最早由電波天文學定義,對應行星磁層嘅自轉,週期係木星嘅官方週期[121]。
觀測[編輯]
木星通常係夜晚成個天入面第四光嘅天體(僅次太陽、月球同金星)[89]。根據木星喺地球望落去嘅位置,佢嘅視星等可能會唔同[122]。平均視星等係−2.20,標準差係0.33[122]。當木星穿過近日點嗰陣,會發生衝,令佢更近地球[123]。接近衝嗰陣,木星會進入121日嘅逆行狀態,向後移動 9.9° ,然後返到順行狀態[124]。
因為木星軌道喺地球軌道出面,因此從地球睇木星嘅相位角始終小於11.5°;因此,當通過地球望遠鏡觀察嗰陣,木星成日被照到幾乎光哂噉。只有接近木星嘅航天器可以影到新月形嘅木星[125]。小型望遠鏡通常會睇到木星嘅伽利略衛星同橫跨木星大氣層嘅雲帶。4-6 英寸口徑嘅望遠鏡會喺木星面對地球嗰陣睇到大紅斑[126][127]。
探測史[編輯]
至少喺公元前7至8世紀,古巴比倫已經有對木星嘅觀測[128]。中國人將木星叫做歲星,並因應木星軌道週期而建立十二地支,並喺4世紀發展成十二生肖[129]。古代中國天文學家甘德話有粒小星星同木星「結盟」[130],可能係因為佢用肉眼觀察睇到木星其中一粒衛星。如果屬實,噉會比伽利略嘅發現早兩千年[131][132]。
古希臘天文學家托勒密喺《天文學大成》基於均輪同本輪起咗個行星模型,以解釋木星相對地球嘅運動,得出木星繞地球嘅周期4332.38日,即係11.86年[133]。
1610年,伽利略發現咗四粒衛星(而家叫伽利略衛星),係證明哥白尼嘅日心說嘅證據,噉令伽利略受到羅馬教廷嘅壓迫[134]。
大紅斑可能早喺1664年就畀羅拔虎克觀測到,但喺1831年先由Heinrich Schwabe畫咗第一幅展示大紅斑細節嘅畫[135]。據報道,大紅斑喺1665年至1708年[136]、1883年同20世紀初多次消失[137]。
1670年代,卡西尼發現衛星經過木星前後嘅時間比預期慢17分鐘,所以奧勒·羅默認為光唔會即刻傳到某個地方(卡西尼唔認同)[37],並以呢個時間差來估計光速[138][139]。
1892年,愛德華·愛默生·巴納德發現木衛五,後來被命名做Amalthea[140]。佢係最後一個用肉眼觀察望遠鏡而睇到嘅行星衛星[141]。1938年,有三個反氣旋特徵被發現,並被叫做"white ovals",有兩個喺1998年合併,並喺2000年吸收埋第三個,叫 Oval BA[142]。
1955年,Bernard Burke 同 Kenneth Franklin 發現木星會發射22.2 mHz頻率嘅無線電波爆發,佢哋用爆發嘅周期來確定木星自轉速率[56]:36。
由1973年開始就有太空探測器去訪問木星,先鋒10號喺最近木星嗰陣並傳咗關於木星特性同現象嘅資料[143][144]。喺呢一年之後,一啲太空探測器進行咗行星飛越並觀測木星。先鋒10同11號獲得咗木星大氣層同佢嘅幾粒衞星嘅特寫圖像,佢哋仲發現咗木星週圍嘅幅射比預期勁好多[45]:47[145]。
太空探測器 | 最近木星嗰陣 | 距離(km) |
---|---|---|
先鋒10號 | 1973年12月3號 | 130,000 |
先鋒11號 | 1974年12月4號 | 34,000 |
航行者1號 | 1979年3月5號 | 349,000 |
航行者2號 | 1979年7月9號 | 570,000 |
尤利西斯號 | 1992年2月8號[146] | 408,894 |
2004年2月4號[146] | 120,000,000 | |
卡西尼號 | 2000年12月30號 | 10,000,000 |
新視野號 | 2007年2月28號 | 2,304,535 |
1979年,航行者任務令人類對伽利略衛星了解更多,仲發現咗木星環,又證實咗大紅斑係反氣旋而且同先鋒號嘅相對比之下由橙色變咗做深啡色[45]:87[147]。
尤利西斯係下一個同木星相遇嘅太空探測器。佢研究咗木星嘅磁層[146]。2000年,卡西尼號飛越木星,提供咗更高解像度嘅相[148]。之後,新視野號喺2007年飛越木星,木星嘅重力助推協助佢去冥王星[149],新視野號度咗木衞一火山嘅等離子體輸出,並詳細研究咗所有伽利略衛星[150]。
朱諾號喺2016年7月4號到木星,目標係要由極地軌道研究木星,並打算喺廿個月內繞住木星行三十七個圈[151][63][152],喺任務期間,太空探測器可能會因為木星磁層嘅幅射而令儀器故障[153]。8月27號,朱諾號首次飛越木星並傳回咗第一張木星北極嘅相[154]。2018年6月,NASA將任務由同年7月延長到2021年7月,2021年1月又延長到2025年9月,並飛越咗一次木衛三,一次木衛二同兩次木衛一[155][156]。之後,佢會受控進入木星大氣入面分解,避免撞入衛星[157][158]。
班科學家想研究木星嘅冰衛星,因為佢哋可能有地下液態海洋[159]。但試過開發嘅太空探測器JIMO同EJSM/Laplace都因為唔夠錢而放棄[160]。之後,呢啲計劃由歐洲太空總署嘅木星冰月探測器(JUICE)喺2023年4月14號發射而實現[161],而NASA都計劃喺2024年發射歐羅巴快船[162]。
衛星[編輯]
木星有95粒已知天然衛星[17],隨著觀測技術嘅進步,呢個數字可能會增加[163]。衛星入面有79粒直徑細個10公里[17],最大嗰四粒統稱伽利略衛星,通常喺夜晚地球用雙筒望遠鏡可以睇到[164]。
伽利略衛星[編輯]
伽利略衛星係指由天文學家伽利略發現嘅衛星,分別係木衛一、木衛二、木衛三同木衛四。其中木衛一、木衛二同木衛三嘅軌道形成咗拉普拉斯共振,木衛三轉一圈,木衛二就會轉兩圈,而木衛一就會轉四圈。而木星嘅潮汐力令佢哋嘅軌道呈圓形[165]。
佢哋嘅軌道離心率令呢幾粒衛星接近木星嗰陣形狀彎曲,並喺遠離嗰陣變返球形[166]。噉嘅磨擦令衛星內部產生熱量,並體現咗喺木衛一嘅火山活動入面[166]。而喺木衛二表面比較年輕嘅地質年都體現咗木星令佢嘅表面更換咗[167]。
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
伽利略衛星,從左到右數起分別係木衛一、木衛二、木衛三同木衛四 |
分類[編輯]
木星嘅衛星從前根據類似嘅軌道根數分為四組,每組四粒衛星[168]。之後,由於發現咗好多小型衛星,令情況變得更加複雜。木星嘅衛星目前有6個組,並有幾個冇組嘅衛星[169]。
最入嗰八粒規則衛星喺木星赤道平面附近有近乎圓形嘅軌道,佢哋被認為同木星一齊形成,而其他衛星係不規則衛星,被認為係畀木星捕獲嘅小行星或者係佢哋嘅碎片。 每組嘅不規則衛星可能有一個共同嘅起源,可能係一個更大的衛星或分裂嘅捕獲天體[170][171]。
規則衛星 | |
---|---|
內側群 | 喺內側嘅4粒小衛星,直徑細過200公里,軌道半徑細過200,000公里,軌道傾角細過0.5度。 |
伽利略衛星[172] | 由伽利略同西門·馬里烏斯同時期發現嘅4粒衛星,軌道喺400,000公里到2,000,000公里。 |
不規則衛星 | |
撒米斯圖群 | 得一粒衛星嘅群組,軌道介於伽利略衛星同希馬利亞群半途嘅中間位置。 |
希馬利亞群 | 一個緊密嘅族群,軌道距離喺11,000,000公里至12,000,000公里。 |
卡普群 | 得一粒衛星嘅群組,喺亞南克群內緣,以順行方向繞木星運轉。 |
亞南克群 | 逆行軌道群組,邊界模糊,平均距離木星21,276,000公里,平均軌道傾角係149度。 |
加爾尼群 | 明顯嘅逆行群組,平均距離木星23,404,000公里,平均軌道傾角165度。 |
帕西法爾群 | 分散、特徵含糊嘅逆行集團,涵蓋所有最外層嘅衛星。 |
文化[編輯]
木星喺夜晚好容易以肉眼觀察睇到,即使喺日頭有陣時都會睇到,所以自古以來就為人所知[173]。喺巴比倫,木星代表佢哋嘅神 Marduk。佢哋利用木星沿黃道大約十二年嘅軌道來定義星宮[45]。
羅馬人將木星命名做朱庇特,係羅馬神話嘅主神[174]。朱庇特喺希臘神話入面對應嘅神係宙斯,亦都係希臘人對木星嘅叫法[175]。
喺東亞,基於中國嘅五行,呢粒行星被稱為木星[176][177][178],亦畀道教嘅人稱為福星。喺印度,木星被稱為 Brihaspati ,亦都被稱為 Guru ,意思即係上師[179]。
註[編輯]
參考[編輯]
- ↑ Jupiter, entry in the Oxford English Dictionary, prepared by J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 8, second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. ISBN 0-19-861220-6 (vol. 8), ISBN 0-19-861186-2 (set.)
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". 喺2009年8月13號搵到.
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 Williams, David R. (2004年11月16號). "Jupiter Fact Sheet". NASA. 原著喺2011年10月5號歸檔. 喺2007年8月8號搵到.
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本引用來源將會喺幾十分鐘後自動完成。您可以檢查英文對應模或手動擴充 - ↑ "Solar System Exploration: Jupiter: Facts & Figures". NASA. 2008年5月7號. 原著喺2002年12月16號歸檔. 喺2015年7月26號搵到.
- ↑ "Astrodynamic Constants". JPL Solar System Dynamics. 2009年2月27號. 喺2009年8月8號搵到.
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suggested) (help) - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Chang, Kenneth (December 13, 2017). "The Great Red Spot Descends Deep into Jupiter". The New York Times. 喺December 15, 2017搵到.
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- ↑ Denecke, Edward J. (January 7, 2020). Regents Exams and Answers: Earth Science—Physical Setting 2020. Barrons Educational Series. p. 419. ISBN 978-1-5062-5399-2.
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- ↑ Guillot, Tristan; Gautier, Daniel; Hubbard, William B (December 1997). "NOTE: New Constraints on the Composition of Jupiter from Galileo Measurements and Interior Models". Icarus. 130 (2): 534–539. arXiv:astro-ph/9707210. Bibcode:1997Icar..130..534G. doi:10.1006/icar.1997.5812. S2CID 5466469.
- ↑ Fran Bagenal, Timothy E. Dowling, William B. McKinnon, William McKinnon, 編 (2006). Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–75. ISBN 0521035457.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: 編者名單 (link) - ↑ Vdovichenko, V. D.; Karimov, A. M.; Kirienko, G. A.; Lysenko, P. G.; Tejfel’, V. G.; Filippov, V. A.; Kharitonova, G. A.; Khozhenets, A. P. (2021). "Zonal Features in the Behavior of Weak Molecular Absorption Bands on Jupiter". Solar System Research. 55: 35–46. doi:10.1134/S003809462101010X. S2CID 255069821.
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: Check|s2cid=
value (help) - ↑ Kim, S. J.; Caldwell, J.; Rivolo, A. R.; Wagner, R. (1985). "Infrared Polar Brightening on Jupiter III. Spectrometry from the Voyager 1 IRIS Experiment". Icarus. 64 (2): 233–248. Bibcode:1985Icar...64..233K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(85)90201-5.
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- ↑ Ingersoll, A. P.; Hammel, H. B.; Spilker, T. R.; Young, R. E. (June 1, 2005). "Outer Planets: The Ice Giants" (PDF). Lunar & Planetary Institute. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺2022-10-09. 喺February 1, 2007搵到.
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the barycentre is 743,000 km from the centre of the Sun. The Sun's radius is 696,000 km, so it is 47,000 km above the surface.
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Hence the HBMM at solar metallicity and Yα = 50.25 is 0.07 – 0.074 M☉, ... while the HBMM at zero metallicity is 0.092 M☉
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the radius of Jupiter is estimated to be currently shrinking by approximately 1 mm/yr
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{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: 作者名單 (link) - ↑ Loeffler, Mark J.; Hudson, Reggie L. (March 2018). "Coloring Jupiter's clouds: Radiolysis of ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH)" (PDF). Icarus. 302: 418–425. Bibcode:2018Icar..302..418L. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.041. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺2022-10-09. 喺2022-04-25搵到.
- ↑ Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Dowling, Timothy E.; Gierasch, Peter J.; Orton, Glenn S.; Read, Peter L.; Sánchez-Lavega, Agustin; Showman, Adam P.; Simon-Miller, Amy A.; Vasavada, Ashwin R. (2004). Bagenal, Fran; Dowling, Timothy E.; McKinnon, William B. (編). "Dynamics of Jupiter's Atmosphere" (PDF). Jupiter. The Planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere. Cambridge planetary science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1: 105–128. ISBN 0-521-81808-7. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺2022-10-09. 喺2022-03-08搵到.
- ↑ Aglyamov, Yury S.; Lunine, Jonathan; Becker, Heidi N.; Guillot, Tristan; Gibbard, Seran G.; Atreya, Sushil; Bolton, Scott J.; Levin, Steven; Brown, Shannon T.; Wong, Michael H. (February 2021). "Lightning Generation in Moist Convective Clouds and Constraints on the Water Abundance in Jupiter". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 126 (2). arXiv:2101.12361. Bibcode:2021JGRE..12606504A. doi:10.1029/2020JE006504. S2CID 231728590. e06504.
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- ↑ Becker, Heidi N.; Alexander, James W.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Bolton, Scott J.; Brennan, Martin J.; Brown, Shannon T.; Guillaume, Alexandre; Guillot, Tristan; Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Levin, Steven M.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Aglyamov, Yury S.; Steffes, Paul G. (2020). "Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter". Nature. 584 (7819): 55–58. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...55B. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2532-1. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 32760043. S2CID 220980694.
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In Greek the name of the planet Jupiter is Dias, the Greek name of god Zeus.
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suggested) (help) - ↑ De Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1912). Religion in China: universism. a key to the study of Taoism and Confucianism. American lectures on the history of religions.第10卷. G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 300. 原著喺2011-07-22歸檔. 喺2010-01-08搵到.
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suggested) (help) - ↑ Crump, Thomas (1992). The Japanese numbers game: the use and understanding of numbers in modern Japan. Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese studies series. Routledge. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0415056098.
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suggested) (help) - ↑ "Guru". Indian Divinity.com. 原著喺2008-09-16歸檔. 喺2007-02-14搵到.
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