Geologists used new evidence from physics, including radioactive dating and heat sources within the Earth, to show that the Earth was older than physicists had estimated based on cooling models alone. Lord Kelvin had estimated the Earth's age as between 20-40 million years based on cooling rates, but radioactive elements provided additional heat sources and evidence that the Earth was at least 1.6 billion years old. By considering multiple heat sources and dating methods, geologists and physicists reconciled differing age estimates to establish that the Earth was over 3 billion years old.
The document discusses methods for determining the age of the Earth by examining fossils and rock layers. It describes how fossils are formed by rapid burial after death, and how studying the layers they are found in can reveal the conditions of the Earth during different time periods. Index fossils that are unique to a specific layer are useful for correlating the ages of different rock formations. The fossil record also provides evidence that species have evolved over long periods of time. Radiometric dating techniques allow scientists to directly determine the ages of rocks and provide evidence that the Earth is very old.
1. The document discusses several theories regarding the age of the Earth, including that some scientists believe it is approximately 4.6 billion years old based on evidence from fossils and geology, while some creationists believe it is only around 10,000 years old based on historical documents and some scientific evidence.
2. The document also discusses theories of how life on Earth originated, such as the primordial soup theory that early Earth's atmosphere allowed organic molecules to form, and the endosymbiont theory that early cells incorporated aerobic bacteria in a symbiotic relationship.
3. Determining the age of the Earth and theories of the origin of life involve assumptions and can never be proven absolutely, as scientists with different beliefs
The document provides an overview of the history of Earth from its formation 4.5 billion years ago to the present. It describes how the solar system formed, including the Earth, and the early development of the planet. Key events mentioned include the formation of the first life forms, the rise of oxygen in the atmosphere, the emergence of complex life and fossils, periods of climate change, shifting continents, and mass extinctions. The text also discusses methods for dating the age of the Earth and geological eras.
This document discusses methods that geologists use to determine the age of rocks and develop the geologic timescale. It explains that relative dating uses principles like superposition and cross-cutting relationships to determine the relative order of formations, while absolute dating uses radioactive decay and half-lives to determine precise numerical ages. Examples of radiometric dating techniques are provided, such as carbon-14 dating and potassium-argon dating. The major eras and periods of the geologic timescale are also outlined, from the Precambrian Eon to the current Cenozoic Era.
The document discusses the origins and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life. It describes how the Big Bang created the universe approximately 13.7 billion years ago. It then explains how galaxies, stars, and planets formed, including theories about how the solar system originated. The formation and geological history of Earth is covered in detail, breaking its timeline into Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Key events like the emergence of life and mass extinctions are highlighted.
The document summarizes key events in Earth's history from the formation of the solar system to the present. It describes the origin of life beginning with simple prokaryotes over 3 billion years ago. The first complex eukaryotic cells emerged around 1.7 billion years ago, followed by multicellular organisms over 700 million years ago. The development of land plants and animals is outlined through the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, along with changing climates and configurations of the Earth's continents and oceans. Absolute and relative dating methods are also summarized that are used to determine the age of geological features and fossils.
The document summarizes the history of Earth based on geological evidence. Scientists have determined that early Earth had a different atmosphere composed of gases from volcanic eruptions. Over millions of years, these gases and precipitation formed oceans. Green plants then produced oxygen through photosynthesis, changing the atmosphere. Scientists use various geological features like rock layers, fossils, and radioactive dating to determine the sequence of events in Earth's history and develop a geological timescale.
1) Approximately 6 billion years ago, the Earth formed from a part of the sun that cooled and separated. While the interior remains hot, tectonic forces later caused hills, mountains, and changes to the surface.
2) Around 4 billion years ago, the cooled Earth developed water and an atmosphere, allowing the first living single-celled organisms to form in oceans about 3.5 billion years ago.
3) Multicellular life eventually emerged, followed by more complex organisms like fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and later humans. Periods like the ice age were challenging as many species went extinct while others survived.
The universe began about 14.4 billion years ago.
The Big Bang Theory states that, in the beginning, the universe was all in one place.
To know more, see the presentation.
1) Changes in the atmosphere, such as variations in greenhouse gases, solar radiation levels, volcanic activity, and ice sheet size can impact climate by altering the Earth's energy balance.
2) Scientific evidence shows that small variations in the Earth's orbit and axis (known as the Milankovitch cycles) have paced climate changes over hundreds of thousands of years by changing the distribution of solar energy received in different latitudes and seasons.
3) Positive feedback loops involving greenhouse gases, ice sheets, and temperature amplified the effects of the Milankovitch cycles in the past, driving the Earth into ice ages. However, human emissions are now the dominant factor changing climate through increased greenhouse gases.
The document provides an overview of geology, describing the structure of the Earth and key concepts in the field. It begins with definitions of geology and discusses the four spheres that make up the Earth: the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Key points about the layers of the Earth's interior and crust are summarized. The remainder of the document outlines principles of geology including plate tectonics, geological timescales, dating methods like radioactive decay, and the progression of life forms through different eras.
Compress 13 bilion years of the earth's history into a single day and here is how it looks. Humans don't appear until 1 minute and 17 seconds to midnight.
The document provides an overview of Earth's geological history and processes. It discusses how heat from the Earth's core and energy from the sun drive plate tectonics and geological changes over long periods of time. Precise dating methods like radiometric dating indicate that the Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old, much older than traditionally thought. The constant recycling of the crust through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock processes comprises the long-term geological evolution of our planet.
Origin and interiors of the earth LECTURE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING DRAWINGSafiullah Khan
This document provides an overview of engineering geology and the interior structure of Earth. It discusses:
- Engineering geology as the application of geology to civil engineering projects.
- The interior structure of Earth, including the crust, mantle (with upper, lower, and outer layers), liquid outer core, and solid inner core.
- Theories for the origin of Earth, including the nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace where Earth formed from a contracting gas cloud/nebula around the sun.
This document provides an overview of Earth's history and geology. It explains that Earth is geologically active with huge amounts of energy acting on its surface and interior. Observable evidence today can provide information about past processes and events. It then describes various aspects of Earth's structure like the crust, mantle, core and tectonic plates. It discusses geological processes like erosion, sedimentation, and the rock cycle. It also outlines plate tectonics and features at plate boundaries like divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Key terms are defined like seismic, fossil, and stratigraphy. The conclusion notes that rather than being serene, Earth is a dynamic world that is constantly changing.
ORIGIN OF EARTH AND IT’S PLACE IN UNIVERSEShahid Hussain
The document discusses the origin and evolution of the universe, Earth, and life. It describes evidence that supports the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe approximately 13.8 billion years ago. It explains that galaxies, stars, and planets formed over time through evolutionary processes. The document also discusses different views on the origin and age of the universe, from both religious and scientific perspectives, including the idea of theistic evolution. It provides examples of the immense distances in the universe and compares the age of the Earth and the development of life to timescales in a hypothetical "cosmic calendar" representing the universe's age in one year.
Earth History 2: Changes in AtmosphereRobin Seamon
The document discusses the various factors that cause changes in Earth's atmosphere and climate over time. It explains that changes in one climate variable, such as the atmosphere, will affect others as they are all interconnected. The key factors identified are 1) biotic processes, 2) variations in solar radiation, 3) plate tectonics, 4) volcanic eruptions and large igneous provinces, 5) the cryosphere, 6) Milankovitch cycles, and 7) greenhouse gases. The document traces the history of scientific understanding of these climate change causes and how different evidence and techniques verified theories about ice age triggers being linked to orbital variations amplified by greenhouse gas feedbacks.
Are the creation ministries shooting straight with usTimothy Helble
Each week, thousands of people attend “creation conferences” put on by various young earth creation ministries and hear convincing-sounding arguments for a recent creation (6,000 years ago) and against what they broadly refer to as evolution. These young earth presenters talk just like us and share our spiritual beliefs, so we’d much rather believe them than the host of intellectual-sounding scientists who tell us that the Earth and our universe is very old. In my opinion, the young earth creation ministries have not been truthful with Christians at these conferences and it is time to call them to task for this. Can I substantiate my claim with solid evidence that doesn’t rest on opinions? Review this presentation and see for yourself.
History of the Earth - How our World Came to BeVinay Parikh
The document provides an overview of the major geological time periods from the Hadean Eon to the Cretaceous Period. It summarizes the defining features and key events of each period such as the formation of oceans, evolution of early life, dominance of certain species, mass extinctions, movement of tectonic plates, and climate changes. The time periods discussed include the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous.
This document contains satellite photos of the Earth at night along with descriptions. It shows photos of Europe and Africa with some areas still lit during daylight hours and others already in darkness. Other photos show nighttime views of Brazil and the United States with labels of major cities visible as lights. The final pages encourage sharing the photos so future generations can enjoy these "spectacular views."
The Earth is a rocky sphere that spins on its axis and orbits the Sun. It has a molten iron core, surrounded by a mantle and crust. The atmosphere protects life from space hazards and the greenhouse effect maintains a livable temperature. Radioactive dating indicates the Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old, and its interior structure and motions are driven by convection currents caused by radioactive decay. Plate tectonics shapes the surface through rifting and subduction.
This document discusses evidence from paleoclimate records that shows Earth's climate has varied dramatically in the past. It provides examples of periods of extreme warming and cooling, including the Cryogenian ice age 850-630 million years ago where ice sheets engulfed the planet, and the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago where temperatures were over 20 degrees Celsius warmer than today. The document examines different climate proxy records like tree rings, ice cores, and pollen that provide evidence about past climate changes. It also discusses human activities like burning fossil fuels that are increasing greenhouse gases and warming the planet ten times faster than past changes seen in the paleoclimate record.
Introduction to Zoological Nomenclature (Part 1). Approximately 1 hour, 38 slides, in English. By Jerry Hooker, Dep't of Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
This document summarizes a chapter about the origin of species from a biology textbook. It discusses key concepts in evolutionary theory including speciation, the biological species concept, reproductive isolation, allopatric and sympatric speciation mechanisms, and examples of speciation through polyploidy and habitat/sexual selection. The chapter also covers limitations of the biological species concept and alternative definitions of a species.
The document discusses the history and development of taxonomy from its earliest forms in ancient China through the modern era. It covers key figures and works that advanced the field, such as the first herbal works in ancient Egypt and Greece, early classification systems, Carolus Linnaeus's seminal contributions in the 1700s that established the modern binomial nomenclature system, the development of rules for nomenclature in the 19th century, and the shift from morphological to molecular techniques in recent decades. The document traces how taxonomy transformed from early herbalism and classification into the formal scientific discipline it is today.
Systematics is the study of the historical relationships between biological organisms and the understanding of biodiversity. It aims to trace phylogeny and classify taxa in an evolutionary context. Systematics encompasses fields like taxonomy, classification, nomenclature, biogeography, and phylogenetics. It determines the unique and shared properties of species and higher taxa, classifies life to make diversity accessible to other disciplines, and has contributed insights in areas like epidemiology, agriculture, and conservation through accurate identification and classification of organisms.
The document discusses different perspectives on classifying species and defining what a species is. It describes five main species concepts used in science: morphological, biological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, and ecological. The morphological concept views each species as having an essential set of characteristics, while the biological concept defines species based on reproductive isolation. Evolutionary and phylogenetic concepts consider species lineages and ancestry. Realism, nominalism, whether species are individuals or classes, and other philosophical issues related to defining species are also covered.
This document provides an overview of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It discusses key figures and findings that influenced Darwin's thinking, such as Linnaeus' taxonomy, Lamarck's theory of inheritance of acquired traits, and Lyell and Hutton's theories of gradual geological change. The document also summarizes Darwin's two main ideas in Origin of Species: that evolution explains life's diversity and unity, and that natural selection is a mechanism of adaptive evolution. It provides examples of natural selection in action and evidence that supports evolution, such as molecular homologies and transitional fossils.
This document discusses phylogenetic trees and their terminology. It covers topics like tree building methods, types of nucleotide substitutions used in models of evolution, likelihood and Bayesian approaches, and some open problems in visualizing and archiving phylogenetic trees. The document uses examples of phylogenetic trees to illustrate concepts like rooting trees, tree topology not depending on node ordering, and different dimensions that could be used to visualize trees.
The document discusses the early history of rules for botanical taxonomy and nomenclature. It notes that one of the first attempts was made by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1813. Kuntze's application of insufficient nomenclature laws triggered botanists to create an official code of botanical nomenclature, which was decided at a 1905 botanical congress in Vienna. The initiation of a zoological code started later, with Hugh Edwin Strickland elaborating the first zoological nomenclatural laws in 1842.
This document provides a history of taxonomy from ancient times through the modern era. It discusses how early ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman scholars began classifying and organizing plants and animals. Key early taxonomists mentioned include Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny. It then covers the contributions of later taxonomists like Caesalpino, the Bauhin brothers, John Ray, and Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. The era of Carl Linnaeus is described as revolutionizing taxonomy through his introduction of binomial nomenclature. The document outlines how Linnaeus helped transform botany and zoology into scientific disciplines. It concludes with a discussion of developments like cl
The document summarizes key concepts about the origin of species from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It discusses Darwin's observations in the Galapagos Islands that led to his ideas, defines microevolution and macroevolution, and describes the biological species concept of reproductive isolation. It also covers the mechanisms of allopatric and sympatric speciation, examples of adaptive radiation, and models of punctuated equilibrium versus gradual evolution.
Comparing the Codes: Zoological and Botantical NomenclatureICZN
The document summarizes some of the key differences between the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, which govern the scientific naming of animals and plants respectively. Some differences include the use of different suffixes for suprageneric ranks, rules around italicization, priority for fossil vs. recent taxa, and allowing or prohibiting tautonyms. Both codes aim for stability and hierarchy in scientific names but approach this goal through somewhat different terminologies and principles.
The document discusses several key aspects of speciation and taxonomy:
1) Speciation requires isolation of populations which then undergo genetic divergence and reproductive isolation. The main types of speciation discussed are allopatric and sympatric speciation.
2) Mechanisms of reproductive isolation that can lead to speciation include geographical, ecological, temporal, behavioral, mechanical and gametic isolation.
3) Polyploidy, where organisms have more than two paired sets of chromosomes, is another path to speciation discussed.
4) The document outlines the history of taxonomy from Aristotle to the current three domain system recognizing bacteria, archaea and eukarya based on genetic analysis.
Classifiction and Nomenclature of Kingdoms of LifeCyra Mae Soreda
This document discusses the history and principles of taxonomy and biological classification. It begins with definitions of taxonomy, classification, and nomenclature. It then covers the historical development of classification systems from Aristotle to the modern five-kingdom and three-domain systems. Key figures discussed include Linnaeus, Haeckel, Copeland, and Whittaker. The document also outlines taxonomic ranks, important classification features like embryology and body plans, and rules of scientific nomenclature.
Taxonomy is the science of classifying living things. Taxonomists give scientific names to species that reveal how they are related to one another, helping us understand biodiversity. While scientists estimate there are 30 million species on Earth, taxonomists have only identified and named about 1.7 million so far. Taxonomists' work produces identification tools that help conservationists understand and protect biodiversity. The Global Taxonomy Initiative addresses the shortage of taxonomists around the world.
Mark 10, Population and the age of the earth, last will be first, God alone i...Valley Bible Fellowship
Mark 10, Jesus teaches about marriage/divorce, Jesus teaches about children, Jesus teaches about riches, eternal life, Jesus teaches about His crucifixion, Jesus teaches about ambition vs. service, Jesus heals Bartimaeus, Population And The Age Of The Earth, last will be first, God alone is good, stand up, camel, treasure, God created male and female, Scientist error dishonesty, divorce for any reason, Become One Flesh, children brought to Jesus, is God good, the Bug Bible, The Wicked Bible, treasure in heaven, drop your prejudices, Bartimaeus
This document discusses the Milankovitch theory of ice ages, which proposes that variations in the Earth's orbit and axial tilt cause long-term changes in climate by altering the amount and distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface. Key points of the theory include:
1) Milankovitch computed how factors like eccentricity, obliquity, and precession influence seasonal and latitudinal patterns of sunlight (insolation) over long time periods.
2) Variations in insolation are argued to be sufficient to induce glacial/interglacial cycles by changing how much snow melts each summer in northern high latitudes.
3) Comparison of Milankovitch's modeled in
Might our earth undergo a runaway greenhouse warming similar to Venus?
Could there be life on the billions of exo-planets?
Why is the oxygen content of our earth’s atmosphere greater that of Venus and Mars, which are mostly CO2 ?
Earth's Temperature _ A Brief History Of Recent ChangesIngre1930685
This document discusses changes in Earth's temperature over the past 420,000 years and the role of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide. Key points:
1. Temperatures varied between around 5-17°C over the past 420,000 years in 100,000 year cycles driven by variations in Earth's orbit and tilt.
2. The last 10,000 years have been remarkably stable until recently, allowing civilization to develop.
3. Carbon dioxide levels never exceeded 300 ppm until the last century due to human activity like burning fossil fuels. Rising CO2 is the primary cause of recent temperature increases.
4. If greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated, temperatures may increase 2-6°C
Lesson1 climate and change GCSE Edexcel B Geographysarah marks
The document discusses several natural causes of past climate change:
1) Solar activity, with periods of lower sunspot activity corresponding to "Little Ice Ages" and higher activity to warm periods like the Medieval Warm Period. However, solar activity does not correlate with warming since 1975.
2) Orbital cycles known as Milankovitch cycles, which cause ice ages and warm interglacial periods over 100,000 year cycles.
3) Large volcanic eruptions, which eject aerosols that reflect sunlight and cause short-term global cooling lasting several years.
4) Ocean circulation patterns, with changes potentially causing Europe to be 6-8°C cooler during glacial periods due to reductions in the
In this presentation, I focused on the geomorphological aspect of earthquake which means tectonic plates. Additionally, we also included the origin of the Universe and tectonic plates. And also the Nepal and Taiwan earthquakes of 2015 was also described here in perspective with tectonic plates.
1. The formation and evolution of the Solar System began about 4.57 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center to form the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk from which the planets, moons, asteroids and other small bodies formed.
2. According to the nebular hypothesis, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from accretion of planetary material in the solar nebula. Within the first 100-200 million years, early Earth had formed extensive oceans and seas.
3. Key events in the development of early Earth included the formation of its layered internal structure through the sinking of
The document discusses theories about the interior structure of the Earth, including the hollow Earth theory. It notes that while most models assume a solid iron core, evidence like excess heat production on Earth and anomalies in gravity measurements cast doubt on this. The document explores historical concepts of the hollow Earth from Halley and Euler, and suggests there may be inner shells, atmospheres and a possible inner sun.
Planetary Vacuums, Atmospheres, & LifePaul H. Carr
While does our earth have a 21% Oxygen Atmosphere,
when our neighboring planets, Mars, and Venus, have mostly Carbon Dioxide?
Could our earth have a runaway greenhouse effect like Venus?
Is there life on the billions of exo-planets?
Geothermal is a natural gift that is residual heat from the nuclear reactions that have occurred at the beginning of the formation of the earth and the universe
.
Preliminary Survey
The event, which includes the collection, analysis, and presentation of data related to information geological, geophysical, geochemical, to estimate the location and existence of geothermal resources as well as the Work Area.
Geothermal systems:
1).Heat Sources
2).Reservoir and Clay Cap
3). The existence of Hydrology System
Grouping Geothermal :
1. Geothermal Energy "wet steam"
2. Geothermal Energy "Hot Water"
Optimizing Geothermal Resources
Efforts to use other fossil fuels are relatively inexpensive, such as gas and coal reserves of the world, adding to the community's dependence on fixed harness the energy source.Competitive electricity prices do not become less attractive to investors in investing.There have been many government policies that have been developed to increase the utilization of sustainable energy sources. However, to build new plants or even increase the installed capacity in the Work Area Mining (WKP) which has existed just steps still halting.The main obstacle seems today is the lack of integration between national energy policy with the implementation of government and stakeholders to do. It is time for the government to think far ahead, to improve the quality of life of the world to use it, through the heat of the earth as a supplier of electricity.
An accidental confluence of old interests and new techniques led a few scientists in the 1950s to realize that human activity might be changing the world’s climate. While the idea of human-caused global warming was first proposed in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, it was largely ignored for over half a century. By the early 1960s, many scientists had become seriously concerned that warming was not just a natural cycle but could be accelerating and caused by human emissions. This shift in scientific understanding of global warming as a potential threat may be one of the pivotal developments of the century, though it resulted largely from work on unrelated questions.
The origin of the elements began with the Big Bang, which created hydrogen. Hydrogen gas clouds condensed to form main sequence stars that fused hydrogen to form helium and heavier elements through nuclear fusion. These main sequence stars then formed oxygen and carbon. On Earth, the heavy elements were created when a supernova exploded, ejecting matter that condensed into our solar system. Life on Earth is protected by the atmosphere, which was made suitable for life as vegetation absorbed carbon dioxide and produced oxygen. Large impacts from asteroids and comets have caused mass extinctions on Earth by blocking sunlight with dust.
Geology is the study of the Earth, including its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that act on it. The Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago from the solar nebula. It differentiated into a solid crust and mantle, and a liquid outer core and solid inner core due to gravity and radioactive heating. The Earth has since undergone significant internal and external changes. The atmosphere formed from gases released from volcanoes, and the oceans formed as water accumulated on the cooling surface. Life emerged on Earth around 3.5 billion years ago. The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move over the mantle due to convection currents in the upper mantle. The biosphere interacts with and alters
The document discusses arguments for and against the age of the Earth being only thousands of years old versus billions of years old according to evolutionary theory. It provides examples of how coal and fossils could have formed rapidly from plants and animals buried during Noah's flood, rather than over millions of years as evolution proposes. The document also notes that radiometric dating methods used to determine the age of the Earth disagree with each other and are based on assumptions about rates of processes that have not been observed over long periods of time.
Why is the temperature of Venus hotter than Mercury that is closer to the sun.
Search for life in our (1) solar system and (2) Milky Way Galaxy
How life has and is now impacting our earth
The document discusses estimates of the age of the Earth and universe over time. Early estimates based on biblical interpretations placed the Earth's age at around 6000 years. The development of modern geology in the 18th century, led by James Hutton, established that geological processes occurred gradually over long periods, indicating a much older Earth. Radiometric dating techniques now provide precise measurements of billions of years for the Earth, meteorites, and universe based on the decay of radioactive isotopes.
The early Earth had an atmosphere of hydrogen and helium that was lost to space due to the planet's weak gravity and a large impact event that formed the Moon. Volcanic outgassing produced the second atmosphere of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and other gases but no oxygen. As photosynthetic life evolved, oxygen levels rose while carbon dioxide decreased due to its reaction with rocks and incorporation into marine organisms. This established the current atmosphere around 500 million years ago, though the climate has continued to vary between warm and icy periods.
The Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere: Still Many UncertaintiesEzioAang
About 4.5 billion years ago, Earth formed out of nebula of gases and dust that were to become the solar system
Small objects--called planetoids-- accreted or combined together to build larger objects…such as planets
The early atmosphere would have been similar to the Sun--mainly hydrogen and helium, but this atmosphere was lost quickly for two reasons:
(1) The gravity of the modest size earth was not strong enough to prevent such light gases from escaping to space. Particularly since the early earth was hot!
(2) It appears that around 30 million years after the earth’s formation, it was struck by a large object…the size of Mars. The result: the origin of the moon and loss of earth’s early H, He atmosphere.
The surface of the earth during this period was extremely hot with numerous volcanoes
The earth was under near constant bombardment by objects of varying sizes
Slowly, the earth started to cool down and the second atmosphere began to form.
A new atmosphere was established by the outgasing of volcanoes…the mixture of gases was probably similar to those of today’s volcanoes:
H20 vapor (roughly 80%)
CO2 (roughly 10%)
N2 (few percent)
Small amounts of CO, HCL, HS (Hydrogen Sulfide), SO2, CH4 (Methane), Ammonia (NH3), and other trace gases.
Virtually no oxygen in that second atmosphere.
Thus, no ozone layer, so ultraviolet radiation flooded the earth’s surface.
With a huge influx of water vapor and the cooling of the planet, clouds and earth’s oceans formed.
At that time the sun was about 30% weaker than today…why didn’t the earth freeze over?
The apparent reason: so much CO2 so there was a very strong greenhouse effect.
In the first two billion years of the planet’s evolution, the atmosphere acquired a small amount of oxygen, probably by the splitting of water (H20) molecules by solar radiation.
The evidence of this oxygen is suggested by minor rust in some early rocks.
The oxygen also led to the establishment of an ozone layer that reduced UV radiation at the surface.
With the rise of photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria) and early plants, oxygen levels began to rise rapidly as did indications of rust in rocks
Between 2.5 billion years ago to about 500 bya, 02 rose to near current levels.
While O2 was increasing, CO2 decreased due to several reasons:
(1) In photosynthesis CO2 is used to produce organic matter, some of which is lost to the system (e.g., drops to the bottom of the ocean or is buried)
(2) chemical weathering, which removes CO2
Sulfur compounds were taken out of the atmosphere as acid rain and were deposited on the ground as sulfates.
N2 gas increased slowly but progressively since it was relatively inert.
Current composition of the atmosphere was established approximately a billion years ago.
With lower CO2 levels the earth became more susceptable to ice ages when solar radiation decreases due to orbital variations,
It appears that around 750-550 million years ago the earth cooled down and became nearly entirely glaciated.
The early Earth had two primordial atmospheres composed of hydrogen and helium that escaped due to the planet's weak gravity, and a second composed of gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen released by volcanoes. Around 2 billion years ago, the rise of oxygen-producing photosynthetic bacteria led to the establishment of a third atmosphere with near-modern levels of oxygen. Decreases in carbon dioxide due to photosynthesis and weathering eventually allowed glaciation until volcanic outgassing of carbon dioxide warmed the planet again.
The document discusses several hypotheses for the origin of the universe and the solar system. It states that the widely accepted Big Bang Theory proposes that the universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago from the violent expansion of space-time and extremely dense and hot matter. It also describes the Nebular Hypothesis for the formation of the solar system, which suggests that the sun and planets formed from a giant rotating cloud of gas and dust approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Additionally, it briefly outlines other hypotheses such as the Creationist Theory, Oscillating Universe Theory, and Steady-State Theory.
The document discusses several hypotheses for the origin of the universe and the solar system. It states that the widely accepted Big Bang Theory proposes that the universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago from the violent expansion of space-time and extremely dense and hot matter. It also describes the Nebular Hypothesis for the formation of the solar system, which suggests that the sun and planets formed from a giant rotating cloud of gas and dust approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Additionally, it briefly outlines other hypotheses such as the Creationist Theory, Oscillating Universe Theory, and Steady-State Theory.
Alfred Russel Wallace was a British naturalist who independently conceived of the theory of evolution by natural selection. While Wallace and Charles Darwin both arrived at the theory of natural selection, Darwin is given credit as the primary discoverer since he had been developing his ideas for over 20 years before Wallace sent him his essay. Wallace spent his later career focusing on issues outside the mainstream of evolutionary thought such as land reform, vaccination, and spiritualism.
Thomas Huxley (1825-1895) was a British biologist and advocate for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. He studied medicine and published his first paper in 1845. As a young scientist, he made contributions to the fields of comparative anatomy and invertebrate zoology. In debates with Richard Owen, Huxley argued that apes are more closely related to humans than previously believed. He was an outspoken supporter of Darwin and popularized his evolutionary ideas, playing a key role in their widespread acceptance. Huxley held several prestigious scientific positions and mentored other prominent biologists. He was influential in professionalizing science and its communication to the public.
St George Jackson Mivart (1827-1900) was a British biologist who initially supported Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection but later became one of its strongest critics on religious and scientific grounds. He had a long and prolific scientific career but is most remembered for his 1871 book "Genesis of Species" which argued natural selection was insufficient to explain evolution and for breaking with the Darwinian circle over his religious views. His criticisms of Darwinism sparked intense debates but also pushed evolutionary theory to be strengthened and more fully developed.
Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) was a Swiss-American biologist who made several important contributions to the fields of natural history and geology. He was educated in Europe and influenced by prominent scientists like Cuvier. Agassiz published works on fish and fossil fish and later became a professor of natural history in the United States. Though he greeted Darwin's theory of evolution with skepticism, believing in special creation of species, he made many groundbreaking observations in fields like glaciology that informed the work of later evolutionary biologists.
This document discusses Richard Owen, a British anatomist in the 19th century, and his views on evolution and responses to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It provides details on Owen's career and scientific work establishing homology and the archetype theory. Though Owen acknowledged evolution in some form, he rejected Darwin's mechanism of natural selection and maintained species were pre-ordained by natural law. The document also describes the debate and conflict between Owen and Thomas Huxley over their differing views on evolution and humans' place in nature.
The document discusses key ideas and evidence related to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It outlines facts such as the potential for exponential population growth, variation between individuals, and heritability of variation. It also describes inferences made by Darwin and others, such as differential survival of individuals based on advantageous variations leading to natural selection and eventual evolution over generations. Key thinkers discussed include Darwin, Wallace, Malthus, and Futuyma.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was a British naturalist known for his theory of evolution by natural selection. He published his theory in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, which provided evidence that species evolve over generations through the process of natural selection. The document provides biographical details about Darwin's life, education, voyages on the HMS Beagle, publications, and the development and reception of his theory of evolution and natural selection.
This document provides an overview of the history of ideas about evolution and natural history from ancient Greece through the early 19th century. Key figures discussed include Thales, Anaximander, Empedocles, Parmenides, Democritus, Epicurus, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Buffon, Lamarck, Cuvier, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant. Their ideas ranged from essentialism and fixism to early proposals of transmutation of species and gradual evolution over long periods of time in response to environmental factors.
The document discusses the problem of reconciling the existence of an all-powerful, loving God with the existence of evil in the world. It then provides a brief history of ideas related to geology and evolutionary thought from the 16th to 19th centuries. Key figures mentioned include Steno, Hutton, Lyell, and Darwin. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection provided a mechanism by which biological diversity could arise without the need for a designer, potentially resolving the problem of evil.
This document summarizes the design argument for the existence of God through the perspectives of various philosophers from Plato to Darwin. It discusses the cosmological, teleological, and ontological categories of the design argument. It outlines thinkers like Aquinas, Newton, and Paley who put forth versions of the design or teleological argument based on observations of order, purpose, and complexity in the natural world. It also discusses critics of the design argument like Hume and challenges to it like the problem of evil and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
The document discusses the concept of "The Two Cultures" proposed by C.P. Snow, referring to the lack of communication between sciences and humanities. It also summarizes perspectives from the sociology of scientific knowledge arguing that scientific concepts are social constructs dependent on language and culture rather than objective truths. Critics like Alan Sokal and Steven Pinker argue this "strong form" dismisses the objective realities discovered by science.
The document discusses the complex relationship between science and religion throughout history. It begins by outlining different perspectives on whether they are in conflict or can cooperate. It then provides examples of key historical figures like Augustine, Kepler, and Newton who integrated their scientific and religious beliefs. The document also discusses more conflictual periods like those involving Bruno, Draper, and Huxley. Overall, it traces the evolving relationship between science and religion from the past to modern debates around evolution, quantum mechanics, and different theological perspectives.
1) Early cosmologists like Einstein, Friedman, and Lemaître developed the foundations of the Big Bang theory, proposing an expanding universe from an initial hot, dense state.
2) Hubble discovered that distant galaxies are receding from us, providing observational evidence the universe is expanding according to Hubble's law.
3) The cosmic microwave background radiation discovered in 1964 provided crucial evidence for the Big Bang theory, confirming the hot, dense state of the early universe predicted by Gamow.
4) Precise measurements of the CMB have since established a highly accurate age of the universe and supported the Big Bang as the dominant cosmological model.
This document provides background information on the development of modern physics leading up to Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905. It discusses the failures of classical physics to explain new experimental findings, particularly regarding light and the Michelson-Morley experiment. It then summarizes Einstein's two postulates of special relativity and some of the theory's key implications, such as time dilation and length contraction. The document also briefly outlines some experiments that tested and confirmed predictions of special relativity.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document summarizes the Chemical Revolution led by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. It overthrew the phlogiston theory of combustion and replaced it with the modern oxygen theory. Key events included Lavoisier's experiments disproving phlogiston, his naming of oxygen, development of modern chemical nomenclature and conservation of mass law. The revolution transformed chemistry into a quantitative science and established many foundations of modern chemistry."
The document discusses the history and ideas of the eugenics movement from the 19th century through the early 20th century. It traces the origins of eugenics from Darwin and Galton, through its spread internationally via groups like the American Eugenics Society. Key figures like Davenport and Laughlin advocated for both positive and negative eugenics policies including sterilization laws and restrictive immigration policies. The eugenics movement aimed to improve human heredity by controlling reproduction but had racist, classist, and ableist assumptions.
Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, introducing his theory of evolution by natural selection. This was revolutionary at the time as it provided a naturalistic explanation for the diversity of life without needing to invoke design or a creator. However, Darwin's theory was not widely accepted immediately. It took decades for his view of evolution to become the dominant scientific explanation, as evidence accumulated and scientists gradually came to accept the power of natural selection acting over deep time to produce complex life through gradual processes. Darwin's theory fundamentally changed our understanding of life's diversity and complexity, without needing to appeal to design or purpose.
Contested Authority in 19th Century ScienceJohn Lynch
This document discusses the development of geology as a scientific discipline in the 19th century and the tensions that arose between geologists and religious literalists. It covers key developments in geology like the discovery of deep time and fossil evidence, and the emergence of scientists as a professional class. It also examines the debates between established geologists and "scriptural geologists" who tried to reconcile geological findings with literal biblical interpretations. Overall, the document analyzes how geology became established as a field while navigating religious objections to some of its naturalistic conclusions.
This document outlines the development of geology from the 15th century onwards. Early observers like Leonardo da Vinci and Agostino Scilla noted the presence of marine fossils far inland and debated how they could have gotten there. Nils Stensen established principles of superposition, original horizontality, and lateral continuity of rock strata. James Hutton proposed deep time and that the Earth operated through natural processes over immense periods. Mary Anning's fossil discoveries supported new theories of extinct lifeforms. Buckland, Mantell and Owen described new dinosaur and prehistoric species. Lyell advocated actualism and uniformitarianism, that geological changes result from processes still operating today. This established geology as a science based on natural laws rather than
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How to Use Pre Init hook in Odoo 17 -Odoo 17 SlidesCeline George
In Odoo, Hooks are Python methods or functions that are invoked at specific points during the execution of Odoo's processing cycle. The pre-init hook is a method provided by the Odoo framework to execute custom code before the initialization of the module's data. ie, it works before the module installation.
Lecture Notes Unit4 Chapter13 users , roles and privilegesMurugan146644
Description:
Welcome to the comprehensive guide on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) concepts, tailored for final year B.Sc. Computer Science students affiliated with Alagappa University. This document covers fundamental principles and advanced topics in RDBMS, offering a structured approach to understanding databases in the context of modern computing. PDF content is prepared from the text book Learn Oracle 8I by JOSE A RAMALHO.
Key Topics Covered:
Main Topic : USERS, Roles and Privileges
In Oracle databases, users are individuals or applications that interact with the database. Each user is assigned specific roles, which are collections of privileges that define their access levels and capabilities. Privileges are permissions granted to users or roles, allowing actions like creating tables, executing procedures, or querying data. Properly managing users, roles, and privileges is essential for maintaining security and ensuring that users have appropriate access to database resources, thus supporting effective data management and integrity within the Oracle environment.
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Definition of User, User Creation Commands, Grant Command, Deleting a user, Privileges, System privileges and object privileges, Grant Object Privileges, Viewing a users, Revoke Object Privileges, Creation of Role, Granting privileges and roles to role, View the roles of a user , Deleting a role
Target Audience:
Final year B.Sc. Computer Science students at Alagappa University seeking a solid foundation in RDBMS principles for academic and practical applications.
URL for previous slides
chapter 8,9 and 10 : https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/lecture_notes_unit4_chapter_8_9_10_rdbms-for-the-students-affiliated-by-alagappa-university/270123800
Chapter 11 Sequence: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/sequnces-lecture_notes_unit4_chapter11_sequence/270134792
Chapter 12 View : https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/rdbms-lecture-notes-unit4-chapter12-view/270199683
About the Author:
Dr. S. Murugan is Associate Professor at Alagappa Government Arts College, Karaikudi. With 23 years of teaching experience in the field of Computer Science, Dr. S. Murugan has a passion for simplifying complex concepts in database management.
Disclaimer:
This document is intended for educational purposes only. The content presented here reflects the author’s understanding in the field of RDBMS as of 2024.
Demonstration module in Odoo 17 - Odoo 17 SlidesCeline George
In Odoo, a module represents a unit of functionality that can be added to the Odoo system to extend its features or customize its behavior. Each module typically consists of various components, such as models, views, controllers, security rules, data files, and more. Lets dive into the structure of a module in Odoo 17
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8. Benoît de Maillet
1656 - 1738
Telliamed, 1748
“Let us not measure the
past duration of the
world by that of our own
years.”
Used decline in sea level
to obtain an age of two
billion years.
9. “chiefly intended to refute the ancient
notion, some have of late entertained,
of the eternity of all things; though
perhaps by it the world may be found
much older than many have hitherto
imagined.”
10. John Joly
1857 - 1933
“The quantity of sodium now
in the sea, and the annual rate
of its supply by the rivers,
lead, it will be seen, to the
deduction that the age of the
Earth is 99 million
years.” (1899)
11. Modern Salt “Clocks”
< 100 years: Al
< 1,000 years: Cr, Th, Ti, Fe
< 10,000 years: Ni, Si, Pb, Mn
< 100,000 years: Sn, Ba, Cu, Bi, Hg, Co
< 1,000,000 years: Au, Mo, Sb, Rb, Zn
< 10,000,000 years: Ag
< 100,000,000 years: Na, Mg, Li, Sr, K
12. Problems
Assumption of constant rate of influx across
geologic time known to be wrong.
Poorly estimated parameters: rates of erosion and
solution, rainfall, runoff, continental area, average
exposed rock composition over time.
Ignores movement of elements out of oceans,
movement which occurs at approximately the same
rate as influx. Therefore confuses residence time with
accumulation time.
14. Epochs of Nature
Formation of molten Earth
Cooling to hand-hot
temperature
Enveloped with global sea
Volcanic activity
Emergence of land animals
Tectonic activity forms the
land masses
Appearance of humans
15. Age of the Earth
First application of
experiment to problems
of geology
Cooling of metal spheres
of various diameters
Estimated 96,670 years
for Earth to cool to
current temperature.
16. William Thomson
Lord Kelvin, 1824 - 1907
Professor of Natural Philosophy at
Glasgow (1846 - 1899)
Kelvin scale (1848)
Second Law of Thermodynamics
(1851)
First transatlantic cable (1866)
Peerage (1882)
President, Royal Society (1890 – ‘95 )
18. Kelvin’s
Cooling Argument
All energy transformations result in loss of energy as
heat (1852)
“Within a finite period of time the Earth must have
been, and within a finite period of time to come the
Earth must again be, unfit for the habitation of man
as at present constituted, unless operations have
been, or are to be performed, which are impossible
under the laws to which the known operations going
on at present in the material world are subject.”
19. 1862
“It seems, therefore, on the whole most probable
that the sun has not illuminated the earth for
100,000,000 years, and almost certain that he has
not done so for 500,000,000 years. As for the
future, we may say, with equal certainty, that
inhabitants of the earth cannot continue to enjoy
the light and heat essential to their life, for many
million years longer, unless sources now unknown
to us are prepared in the great storehouse of
creation.”
20. 1864
“For eighteen years it has pressed on my mind, that
essential principles of Thermo-dynamics have been
overlooked by those geologists who
uncompromisingly oppose all paroxysmal
hypotheses, and maintain not only that we have
examples now before us, on the earth, of all the
different actions by which its crust has been
modified in geological history, but that these actions
have never, or have not on the whole, been more
violent in past time than they are at present.”
22. Assumption: The earth is a
warm, chemically inert planet
that is cooling.
Assumption: It can be modeled
as an infinite plane of infinite
thickness.
Assumption: Heat loss is
through conduction from the
center.
23. Kelvin’s Estimate
“I think we may with much
probability say that the
consolidation cannot have taken
place less than 20,000,000 years
ago, or we should have more
underground heat than we actually
have, nor more than 400,000,000
years ago, or we should not have
so much as the least observed
underground increment of
temperature.”
24. Samuel Haughton
1821 - 1897
Applies Kelvin’s
methodology and got an
answer of 2.298 billion
years.
25. Clarence King
1842 - 1901
First director of the US
Geological Survey (1879 –
’81).
24 million years (1893)
26. Kelvin’s curve
King’s curve
Parameters:
T: Initial temperature
g: Thermogradient
t: Cooling time
27. Kelvin 1897
“During the thirty-five years which have passed since I
gave this wide-ranging estimate [20,000,000 –
400,000,000 years] experimental investigation has
supplied much of the knowledge then wanting regarding
the thermal properties of rocks to form a closer
estimate of the time which has passed since the
consolidation of the earth, and we have now good
reason for judging that it was more than 20 and less than
40 million years ago, and probably much nearer 20 than
40 … I am not led to differ much from [King’s] estimate
of 24,000,000 years.”
28. By 1900
Physicists seemed to be limiting the age of the Earth
to around 25 million years.
For biologists, this wasn’t a problem as they
generally didn’t subscribe to an evolutionary
process that required long periods of time and
instead allowed for directed evolution.
This was, however, a problem for the geologists
who felt that long periods of time were needed for
formation of the Earth as we see it today.
29. Thomas Henry Huxley
“The argument is simple enough. Assuming the earth to
be nothing but a cooling mass, the quantity of heat lost
per year, supposing the rate of cooling to have been
uniform, multiplied by any given number of years, will be
given the minimum temperature that number of years
ago. But is the earth nothing but a cooling mass… and has
its cooling been uniform? … I do not think it can be denied
that such conditions may exist, and may so greatly affect
the supply, and the loss, of terrestrial heat as to destroy
the value of any calculations which leave them out of
sight. ”
30. T.C. Chamberlain
1899
“The fascinating impressiveness
of rigorous mathematical
analyses, within its atmosphere
of precision and elegance,
should not blind us to the
defects of the premises that
condition the whole process.
There is perhaps no
beguilement more insidious and
dangerous than an elaborate and
elegant mathematical process
built upon unfortified premises.”
31. T.C. Chamberlain
1899
“What the internal
constitution of the atoms
may be is yet an open
question. It is not
improbable that they are
complex organizations and
the seats of enormous
energies.”
32. Rutherford & Soddy
1903
The energy from radioactive decay “must be
taken into account in cosmical physics. The
maintenance of solar energy, for example, no
longer presents any fundamental difficulty if the
internal energy of the component elements are
considered to be available, i.e., if processes of
sub-atomic change are going on.”
33. Ernest Rutherford
1904
“I saw [Kelvin] sit up, open an
eye and cock a baleful glance at
me! Then a sudden inspiration
came to me, and I said Lord
Kelvin had limited the age of
the Earth, provided no new
source of heat was discovered.
That prophetic utterance refers
to what we are considering
tonight. Radium! Behold!”
35. Problems with Kelvin’s Method
Parameters are poorly known (conductivity of
rocks; thermal gradient; initial temperature of
the Earth; heat released upon crystallization;
exact composition and structure of the Earth).
Considers conduction but not convection.
Ignores other sources of heat:
36. Sources of Heat
Heat left over from the formation of the
Earth, e.g. gravitational energy from compaction,
mechanical energy from meteor impacts, chemical
energy from the formation of the Fe-Ni core.
Energy from contraction due to cooling
Energy from ongoing core expansion
Radioactivity
42. Constant Decay
The radioactive decay rates of nuclides used in radiometric
dating have not been observed to vary since their rates
were directly measurable, at least within limits of accuracy.
This is despite experiments that attempt to change decay
rates.
There is insufficient energy in geological processes to affect
the decay rate.
The half-lives of radioisotopes can be predicted from first
principles through quantum mechanics. Any variation would
have to come from changes to fundamental constants.
43. Ernest Rutherford
1906
“The helium observed in the radioactive
minerals is almost certainly due to its
production from the radium and other
radioactive substances contained
therein. If the rate of production of
helium from known weights of the
different radioelements were
experimentally known, it should thus be
possible to determine the interval
required for the production of the
amount of helium observed in
radioactive minerals, or, in other words,
to determine the age of the mineral.”
44. Arthur Holmes
1890 - 1965
“The association of lead with
uranium in rock-minerals and its
application to the measurement
of geological time.” Transactions of
the Royal Society (1911)
Used U-Pb methods to date
rocks from Ceylon to
1,640,000,000 years – the oldest
rocks then known.
48. By 1950
The geologists had come to a lower limit for the
age of the Earth of 3.35 billion years.
The cosmologists however thought the
universe was 1.80 billion years old.
We have a problem. Who is right?
49. Modern Estimates
Oldest metamorphic
rocks: 3.85 billion years
Age of crystallization of
oldest mineral: 4.40
billion years
65. “Heavier-than-air
“X-Rays are a hoax” flying machines are
impossible.”
“There is nothing
new to be discovered in
physics now. All that remains is
more and more precise
measurement
66. “Heavier-than-air
“X-Rays are a hoax” flying machines are
impossible.”
“There is nothing
new to be discovered in
physics now. All that remains is
more and more precise
measurement