This document discusses different input/output techniques for computer systems. It describes three main I/O techniques: programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access. Programmed I/O involves the CPU waiting for I/O operations to complete, interrupt-driven I/O uses interrupts to notify the CPU when an operation is done, and DMA allows data transfers without CPU involvement. The document also outlines functions of I/O modules, which connect I/O devices to system buses, and different addressing and mapping schemes for I/O devices.
The document discusses interrupts in a computer system. It defines an interrupt as a signal that breaks the normal sequence of program execution to handle an event that requires immediate attention, like input from a device. There are two main types of interrupts: hardware interrupts caused by external devices, and software interrupts caused by exceptional conditions in a program like division by zero. The document outlines how interrupts work, including how the processor saves the state of the interrupted program, services the interrupt, and then restores the original program context. It also discusses interrupt priorities and how interrupts can be disabled or deferred based on priority.
The document discusses various aspects of I/O organization in a computer system. It describes the input-output interface that provides a method for transferring information between internal storage and external I/O devices. It discusses asynchronous data transfer techniques like strobe control and handshaking. It also covers asynchronous serial transmission, different modes of data transfer like programmed I/O, interrupt-initiated I/O, and direct memory access (DMA).
This document discusses memory and I/O interfacing with the 8085 microprocessor. It defines interfaces as points of interaction between components that allow communication. Memory interfacing requires address decoding and multiplexing of address and data lines. I/O devices can be interfaced either through memory mapping or I/O mapping. Common memory types include RAM, ROM, SRAM and DRAM. RAM can be static or dynamic. ROM includes PROM, EPROM and EEPROM. A stack is a reserved part of memory used to temporarily store information during program execution.
This document discusses instruction set architectures (ISAs). It covers four main types of ISAs: accumulator, stack, memory-memory, and register-based. It also discusses different addressing modes like immediate, direct, indirect, register-indirect, and relative addressing. The key details provided are:
1) Accumulator ISAs use a dedicated register (accumulator) to hold operands and results, while stack ISAs use an implicit last-in, first-out stack. Memory-memory ISAs can have 2-3 operands specified directly in memory.
2) Register-based ISAs can be either register-memory (like 80x86) or load-store (like MIPS), which fully separate
The document provides an overview of computer architecture and input/output techniques. It defines computer architecture as the set of instructions that describe a computer's organization and implementation. It discusses how I/O modules interface external devices like keyboards and printers to the CPU and memory. There are three main I/O techniques: programmed I/O where the CPU directly controls I/O, interrupt-driven I/O where devices interrupt the CPU when ready, and DMA where devices access memory independently of the CPU to improve efficiency. The document outlines the components and functioning of I/O modules and the various I/O commands used to control peripheral devices.
The document discusses instruction execution in a computer processor. It describes how a processor executes instructions by fetching them from memory using the program counter. The instruction is placed in the instruction register and decoded by the control unit. The control unit then selects components like the ALU to carry out operations. Common components involved in instruction execution are the program counter, memory address register, instruction register, memory buffer register, control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and accumulator. The execution cycle involves fetching the instruction from memory address, decoding it, and then executing the instruction.
The document discusses instruction set architecture (ISA), which is part of computer architecture related to programming. It defines the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, and other low-level aspects of a computer's operation. Well-known ISAs include x86, ARM, MIPS, and RISC. A good ISA lasts through many implementations, supports a variety of uses, and provides convenient functions while permitting efficient implementation. Assembly language is used to program at the level of an ISA's registers, instructions, and execution order.
Direct memory access (DMA) allows certain hardware subsystems to access computer memory independently of the central processing unit (CPU). During DMA transfer, the CPU is idle while an I/O device reads from or writes directly to memory using a DMA controller. This improves data transfer speeds as the CPU does not need to manage each memory access and can perform other tasks. DMA is useful when CPU cannot keep up with data transfer speeds or needs to work while waiting for a slow I/O operation to complete.
This document provides an overview of interrupts in the 8086 microprocessor. It defines an interrupt as an event that breaks normal program execution to service an interrupt request. Interrupts can be triggered by hardware signals from peripherals or software interrupt instructions. The 8086 supports hardware interrupts on the INTR and NMI pins, which can be maskable or non-maskable. It also supports 256 software interrupt types. Common uses of interrupts include servicing devices like keyboards and handling exceptions.
This is a brief introductory lecture I conducted on von Neumann Architecture. Von Neumann is a fundamental computer hardware architecture based on the store program concept, designed by John von Neumann.
The document discusses direct memory access (DMA) and DMA controllers. It explains that DMA allows hardware subsystems like disk drives and graphics cards to access main memory independently of the CPU. This is useful because it allows data transfers to occur in parallel with other CPU operations, improving overall system performance. A DMA controller generates memory addresses and initiates read/write cycles. It has registers that specify the I/O port, transfer direction, and number of bytes to transfer per burst. DMA controllers use different transfer modes like burst, cycle stealing, and transparent to move blocks of data efficiently between peripheral devices and memory.
Interrupts allow input/output devices to alert the processor when they are ready. When an interrupt request occurs, the processor saves its context and jumps to an interrupt service routine. It then acknowledges the interrupt and restores its context before returning to the original instruction. Processors have mechanisms for prioritizing interrupts and enabling/disabling them to avoid infinite loops or unintended requests.
This document discusses different types of data transfer modes between I/O devices and memory, including programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). It explains that DMA allows I/O devices to access memory directly without CPU intervention by using a DMA controller. The basic operations of DMA include the DMA controller gaining control of the system bus, transferring data directly between memory and I/O devices by updating address and count registers, and then relinquishing control back to the CPU. Different DMA transfer techniques like byte stealing, burst, and continuous modes are also covered.
An instruction tells the CPU to perform an operation by storing bits of code in memory that are read into the instruction register. Instructions are executed in three phases: fetching the instruction from memory, decoding what operation it specifies, and then executing it, which may involve reading an effective address or performing an input/output operation. Memory reference, register reference, and input/output instructions allow the CPU to access different parts of the computer's architecture during the instruction cycle.
1. Direct Memory Access (DMA) allows input/output devices to directly access main memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory transfers. This is managed by a DMA controller.
2. During a DMA transfer, the DMA controller gains control of the address bus, data bus, and control bus from the microprocessor to transfer data directly between an I/O port and memory.
3. The DMA controller has several options for transferring data, including cycle stealing for single byte transfers, burst mode for block transfers using address sequencing, and hidden DMA which occurs transparently when the CPU is not using the bus.
This document discusses stack organization and operations. A stack is a last-in, first-out data structure where items added last are retrieved first. It uses a stack pointer to track the top of the stack. Common operations are push, which adds an item to the top of the stack, and pop, which removes an item from the top. Stacks can be implemented with registers, using a stack pointer and data register. Reverse Polish notation places operators after operands, making it suitable for stack-based expression evaluation.
This document provides an overview of direct memory access (DMA), including its history, what it is, applications, channels, modes of operation, types, signals, advantages, and disadvantages. DMA allows fast transfer of data between storage devices and memory without involving the CPU, improving data transfer speeds. It has been a feature of PC architectures since the original IBM PC and is used for applications requiring high data transfer rates like storage, communication, and graphics.
The document describes how input/output (I/O) devices communicate with the processor and memory. I/O devices are connected to the processor and memory via a shared bus. Each device has a unique address and uses address, data, and control lines on the bus. Interrupts allow I/O devices to signal the processor when they need attention, reducing wasted processor time. Multiple interrupt lines allow different devices to interrupt independently and ensure the correct interrupt service routine is executed.
The document discusses different methods of input/output (I/O) in computer systems. It describes three principal I/O techniques: programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access. It also discusses I/O interfaces, peripherals, I/O modules, and how processors communicate with I/O modules using commands, addressing, and status signals. The document provides examples of common peripherals like keyboards, monitors, and disk drives and how they interface with I/O modules and exchange data with the processor.
I/o management and disk scheduling .pptxwebip34973
This document provides an overview of I/O management and disk scheduling in operating systems. It begins with an introduction to different categories of I/O devices and how they vary. It then covers techniques for performing I/O like programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access. The document discusses the evolution of the I/O function and a hierarchical model for organizing I/O. It also outlines concepts like I/O buffering, disk scheduling parameters, RAID levels, and disk caching.
This document discusses different techniques for data transfer between the CPU and I/O devices, including programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). It describes the basic functioning of an I/O module, comparing programmed I/O to interrupt-driven I/O. It then provides details on DMA, including how it allows high-speed transfer of data directly between memory and I/O devices without CPU involvement. The document also covers I/O interfaces, asynchronous data transfer methods like handshaking, and serial transmission techniques.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) organization in computers. It describes how the I/O subsystem provides communication between external devices and the central processing system. Common peripheral devices include monitors, keyboards, printers, and magnetic tapes. The document outlines different I/O techniques including programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access. It also discusses I/O interfaces, addressing schemes, and how interrupts work to signal device completion.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) problems in computer systems and solutions to those problems. Some key issues addressed are the variety of peripheral devices with different data rates and formats, and the mismatch between peripheral and processor speeds. The document describes I/O modules that interface between the CPU/memory and peripherals. I/O modules handle control, buffering, error detection and allow different I/O techniques like programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O and direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data efficiently.
The document provides an overview of I/O systems. It discusses peripheral devices and their I/O management through various techniques like direct memory access, polling, interrupts and buffering. It also covers topics like clocks and timers, caching, spooling, error handling, power management, kernel data structures and improving I/O performance through techniques such as reducing interrupts and using direct memory access. The document contains information presented through multiple sections on different I/O related concepts and components.
This document discusses operating system I/O systems. It covers I/O hardware including devices, ports, buses and controllers. It describes how operating systems manage I/O through techniques like interrupts, DMA, blocking/non-blocking I/O, buffering and caching. The kernel I/O subsystem handles requests, scheduling, error handling and protection. Interfaces like STREAMS provide communication between processes and devices. I/O performance is important to overall system performance.
The document provides an overview of microprocessor-based instrumentation systems. It discusses how microprocessors are able to perform complex tasks from basic computations through programs. Microprocessor-based instrumentation systems offer benefits like being multipurpose, providing immense computational power and data analysis capabilities, enabling automation and control, and allowing for data logging and remote transmission. While offering improved efficiency and accuracy over traditional systems, microprocessor-based systems also involve additional complexity, costs, and programming requirements.
This document provides an overview of operating system I/O subsystems. It discusses I/O hardware, including devices, buses, controllers and device drivers. It describes how operating systems handle I/O requests through mechanisms like interrupts, DMA, polling, blocking/non-blocking I/O and asynchronous I/O. The document also outlines kernel data structures for managing I/O and discusses STREAMS, performance optimization techniques, and the life cycle of an I/O request from the application to hardware.
The document discusses various aspects of computer system structures. It describes that a modern computer system consists of a CPU, memory, and device controllers connected through a system bus. I/O devices and the CPU can operate concurrently, with each device controller managing a specific device type. Interrupts are used to signal when I/O operations are complete. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from fastest and smallest registers to slower but larger magnetic disks. Various techniques like caching, paging and virtual memory help bridge differences in speed between CPU and I/O devices. The document also discusses hardware protection mechanisms like dual mode operation, memory protection using base and limit registers, and CPU protection using timers.
Ch 7 io_management & disk schedulingmadhuributani
This document discusses input/output (I/O) management and disk scheduling. It begins by categorizing I/O devices as those for communicating with users, electronic equipment, and remote devices. It then describes how I/O devices differ in data rates, applications, control complexity, data transfer units, data representation, and error handling. The document outlines three I/O techniques - programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). It also discusses the evolution of I/O architectures and covers I/O buffering, disk organization, and disk terminology.
Input/output modules are critical components that allow computers to interact with external devices. I/O modules serve as an interface between peripherals and the CPU/memory. They perform important functions like control and timing of data transfers, communication with the processor and devices, buffering data, and error detection. I/O modules connect to the system bus and contain data buffers, status registers, and logic to interact with the processor via control lines. This allows external devices like disks and tapes to connect indirectly to the computer and be managed through simple read/write commands.
This document summarizes input/output (I/O) and discusses I/O problems, I/O modules, external devices, typical I/O data rates, and I/O module functions. It then describes I/O module control and timing, processor communication, device communication, and I/O techniques including programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA).
This document discusses input/output (I/O) hardware and software principles. It covers the main types of I/O devices including block devices like disks and character devices like keyboards. It describes common I/O hardware concepts such as device controllers, I/O ports, and I/O buses. The document also discusses I/O software layers including device drivers, interrupt handlers, and device-independent I/O software. Finally, it provides examples of specific I/O devices like disks, displays, terminals, and clocks.
The document discusses input/output (I/O) devices and their classification, data transfer rates, applications, complexity of control, units of data transfer, and error handling. It describes different I/O techniques including programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access. It also covers I/O buffering approaches like single buffering, double buffering, and circular buffering which help smooth data transfer between devices and processes. Logical I/O structures in operating systems separate functions by complexity into logical, device, and scheduling/control layers.
The document discusses how I/O devices are accessed in a computer system. I/O devices are connected to the processor and memory via a shared bus. Each device has a unique address and the processor places the address on the address lines to select a device. Interrupts allow I/O devices to signal the processor when they need service, causing the processor to pause its current program and run an interrupt service routine. The processor supports prioritized interrupts and masking to handle multiple simultaneous interrupt requests. Exceptions generalize the interrupt mechanism to handle other events like errors or debugging breakpoints.
The document provides an overview of computer function and interconnection. It discusses the basic components of a computer system including the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It describes the Von Neumann architecture with a single memory to store both instructions and data. It then explains the fetch-execute cycle of instruction processing and how interrupts can alter the normal flow of a program. Finally, it discusses common interconnection structures like bus architectures and the elements involved in bus design.
Still I Rise by Maya Angelou
-Table of Contents
● Questions to be Addressed
● Introduction
● About the Author
● Analysis
● Key Literary Devices Used in the Poem
1. Simile
2. Metaphor
3. Repetition
4. Rhetorical Question
5. Structure and Form
6. Imagery
7. Symbolism
● Conclusion
● References
-Questions to be Addressed
1. How does the meaning of the poem evolve as we progress through each stanza?
2. How do similes and metaphors enhance the imagery in "Still I Rise"?
3. What effect does the repetition of certain phrases have on the overall tone of the poem?
4. How does Maya Angelou use symbolism to convey her message of resilience and empowerment?
Satta Matka Dpboss Kalyan Matka Results Kalyan ChartMohit Tripathi
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Kalyan Matka Kalyan Result Satta Matka Result Satta Matka Kalyan Satta Matka Kalyan Open Today Satta Matka Kalyan
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Front Desk Management in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Front desk officers are responsible for taking care of guests and customers. Their work mainly involves interacting with customers and business partners, either in person or through phone calls.
Views in Odoo - Advanced Views - Pivot View in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, the pivot view is a graphical representation of data that allows users to analyze and summarize large datasets quickly. It's a powerful tool for generating insights from your business data.
The pivot view in Odoo is a valuable tool for analyzing and summarizing large datasets, helping you gain insights into your business operations.
No, it's not a robot: prompt writing for investigative journalismPaul Bradshaw
How to use generative AI tools like ChatGPT and Gemini to generate story ideas for investigations, identify potential sources, and help with coding and writing.
A talk from the Centre for Investigative Journalism Summer School, July 2024
Principles of Roods Approach!!!!!!!.pptxibtesaam huma
Principles of Rood’s Approach
Treatment technique used in physiotherapy for neurological patients which aids them to recover and improve quality of life
Facilitatory techniques
Inhibitory techniques
Webinar Innovative assessments for SOcial Emotional SkillsEduSkills OECD
Presentations by Adriano Linzarini and Daniel Catarino da Silva of the OECD Rethinking Assessment of Social and Emotional Skills project from the OECD webinar "Innovations in measuring social and emotional skills and what AI will bring next" on 5 July 2024
The Jewish Trinity : Sabbath,Shekinah and Sanctuary 4.pdfJackieSparrow3
we may assume that God created the cosmos to be his great temple, in which he rested after his creative work. Nevertheless, his special revelatory presence did not fill the entire earth yet, since it was his intention that his human vice-regent, whom he installed in the garden sanctuary, would extend worldwide the boundaries of that sanctuary and of God’s presence. Adam, of course, disobeyed this mandate, so that humanity no longer enjoyed God’s presence in the little localized garden. Consequently, the entire earth became infected with sin and idolatry in a way it had not been previously before the fall, while yet in its still imperfect newly created state. Therefore, the various expressions about God being unable to inhabit earthly structures are best understood, at least in part, by realizing that the old order and sanctuary have been tainted with sin and must be cleansed and recreated before God’s Shekinah presence, formerly limited to heaven and the holy of holies, can dwell universally throughout creation
The membership Module in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
Some business organizations give membership to their customers to ensure the long term relationship with those customers. If the customer is a member of the business then they get special offers and other benefits. The membership module in odoo 17 is helpful to manage everything related to the membership of multiple customers.
4. INTRODUCTION
• Users interact with the computer system through
Input and Output (I/O) devices such as keyboard,
mouse, monitor and so on. I/O devices are also
called peripherals.
• I/O devices are used to exchange information
between user and CPU. An I/O organization
includes two major components namely I/O
devices, I/O module. In addition it uses different
techniques to exchange information namely
programmed I/O, Interrupt I/O and Direct
Memory Access (DMA).
5. I/O TECHNIQUES
• It is the technique of communication between
memory and I/O devices. I/O techniques are
categorized in three types based on how
information is transfers between memory and
I/O devices that whether it is using CPU
interaction or Interrupt interaction.
6. TECHNIQUES OF I/O
• Programmed I/O : The CPU issues a command then waits for I/O
operations to be complete. The CPU is faster than the I/O module
then method is wasteful.
• Interrupt Driven I/O : The CPU issues commands then proceeds
with its normal work until interrupted by I/O device on completion
of its work.
• DMA : In this CPU and I/O Module exchange data without
involvement of CPU.
• Memory mapped I/O : Memory and I/O are treated as memory
only. It means no signal like IO/M.
• Isolated I/O : Address space of memory and I/O is isolated.
It uses IO/M signal.
8. Four design techniques
Multiple Interrupt Lines : In this method we have multiple
lines like in IC 8085.
Software Polling : ISR polls to find out the device which has
interrupted. The CPU reads a status register.The method is time
consuming.
Daisy Chin : The method is hardware polling. The ack signal
propagates through and is stopped by the device who is
interrupted.
Bus Arbitration : In this method the device first gets control
of bus and then raises an interrupt request for data transfer.
The CPU issues an ack then the devices gives vector for branching
9. I/O Steps
• CPU checks I/O module device status
• I/O module returns status
• If ready, CPU requests data transfer
• I/O module gets data from device
• I/O module transfers data to CPU
• Variations for output, DMA, etc.
10. I/O Commands
CPU issues address
› Identifies module (& device if >1 per module)
CPU issues command
› Control - telling module what to do
e.g. spin up disk
› Test - check status
e.g. power? Error?
› Read/Write
Module transfers data via buffer from/to device
11. Addressing I/O Devices
• Under programmed I/O data transfer is very
like memory access (CPU viewpoint)
• Each device given unique identifier
• CPU commands contain identifier (address)
12. I/O Mapping
• Memory mapped I/O
– Devices and memory share an address space
– I/O looks just like memory read/write
– No special commands for I/O
• Large selection of memory access commands available
• Isolated I/O
– Separate address spaces
– Need I/O or memory select lines
– Special commands for I/O
• Limited set
13. I/O Module
I/O module is intermediate between I/O devices
and CPU. System buses are connected to the one
end of I/O module and other end is connected to
the number of I/O devices. It used to exchange
information between I/O devices and CPU. I/O
devices cannot be directly connected to the system
buses; they are connected to the system buses
through module.
14. I/O Module Diagram
Data Register
Status/Control Register
External
Device
Interface
Logic
External
Device
Interface
Logic
Input
Output
Logic
Data
Lines
Address
Lines
Data
Lines
Data
Status
Contro
l
Data
Status
Contro
l
Systems Bus
Interface
External Device Interface
15. Functions of I/O Module
The major functions of modules are categorized as
follows
1.Control and Timing - In some of the I/O
operation few resources shared such as CPU and
memory because CPU communicates with more
than one device at a time.
2.Processor Communication - I/O module
communicates with the CPU and I/O devices
16. Features of I/O Module
• Data Buffering - As I/O devices are much
slower than CPU and memory. In order to
maintain speed of data flow between I/O
devices and internal resources, I/O module
buffers data.
• Error Detection - It is built- in feature of I/O
module that detects electrical and mechanical
errors.
18. Control and Timing
• CPU asks I/O module to check the status of
attached device.
• I/O module tells the status.
• CPU requests for data transfer to I/O module if
device is ready.
• I/O module gathers the data and transfers to
the CPU.
19. Interrupts
• CPU interrupt request line triggered by I/O devices
• Interrupt handler receives interrupt
• Maskable to ignore or delay some interrupts
• Interrupt vector to dispatch interrupt to correct
handler
• Based on priorty
• Some unmaskable
• Interrupt mechanism also used for exceptions
21. Multiple interrupts
• The techniques above not only identify the requesting
I/O module but provide
• methods of assigning priorities
• Multiple lines – processor picks line with highest
priority
• Software polling – polling order determines priority
• Daisy chain – daisy chain order of the modules
determines priority
• Bus arbitration – arbitration scheme determines
priority
22. Interrupt Driven I/O
• Overcomes CPU waiting
• No repeated CPU checking of device
• I/O module interrupts when ready
23. Conclusions
• Designing dependable I/O systems has two aspects: individual I/O and redundancy.
The design of dependable individual I/O has a variety of aspects including EMC,
shock/vibration, environment, A/D and D/A conversion, diagnostics, testing and
calibration. Each can present special challenges for the embedded designer in
terms of cost or accessibility concerns. All of the redundancy methods, including
diversity, interlocks, and human interaction, should be considered to address the
safety concerns of an embedded system.
• Two new trends in I/O design are important: Fieldbus and Intelligent I/O. These
promise increased functionality and lower cost. The primary challenge to
acceptance of these techniques is standardization to achieve interoperability.
• The embedded I/O designer must be well versed in a variety of techniques to
produce dependable cost effective designs.