Clinical pharmacology connects medical practice and laboratory science by promoting drug safety and maximizing effects while minimizing side effects. It has been practiced for centuries through observing herbal remedies, and scientific advances allowed studying physiological and biological drug effects. Clinical pharmacologists have medical and scientific training enabling them to evaluate evidence and conduct studies to personalize therapies. They analyze adverse effects, toxicology, and more. Drugs are classified and regulated, and developing new drugs is a long process involving pre-clinical and clinical testing, FDA approval, and post-market surveillance.
This document discusses adverse drug reactions (ADRs). It defines ADRs and provides statistics on their frequency and impact. It discusses various factors that can influence ADRs, including patient characteristics like age and genetics. It also discusses drug properties and interactions that can lead to ADRs. The document classifies ADRs into types A-F based on mechanisms and timing. It provides many examples of common and serious ADRs to illustrate different types. The document emphasizes the importance of pharmacovigilance in monitoring and preventing ADRs.
The document discusses the concept of essential medicines and rational use of drugs. It defines essential medicines as those that meet the priority health care needs of the population. The WHO publishes a Model List of Essential Medicines every two years to guide countries in developing their own national lists. Educational, managerial, economic and regulatory strategies can be used to promote rational drug use and selection of cost-effective treatments. Pharmacists can play a role through drug selection, inventory control, patient education, and pharmaceutical care.
This document provides definitions and classifications of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). It defines key terms like adverse event, adverse drug reaction, and adverse drug event. It then discusses various classification schemes for ADRs based on factors like onset, type of reaction, severity, and more. Different types of ADRs are explained like Type A, B, C reactions as well as side effects, drug dependence, withdrawal reactions and more, along with examples. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of definitions and classifications related to ADRs.
DRUG INTERACTIONS (MECHANISMS OF DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS)N Anusha
A Drug interaction is an interaction between a drug and some other substance, such as another drug or a certain type of food, which leads to interaction that could manifest as an increase or decrease in the effectiveness or an adverse reaction or a totally new side effect that is not seen with either drug alone that can be severe enough to alter the clinical outcome.
Every time a drug is administered with any other prescription medicine, OTC products, herbs or even food we expose ourselves to the risk of a potentially dangerous interaction.
Preclinical studies are conducted before human trials to assess pharmacological and toxicological effects. Both in vitro and in vivo studies characterize these effects. Preclinical testing aims to detect toxicity, understand hazards, establish dose responses, and assess distribution, metabolism, and carcinogenicity. It involves short and long term animal studies in two species, as well as safety pharmacology, toxicology, developmental and reproductive toxicity testing, and genetic and carcinogenicity studies. The steps of preclinical trials include identifying a drug target, developing a bioassay, screening compounds, establishing effective and toxic doses, and filing for investigational new drug approval.
A concise overview of pharmacoeconomics, health economics, various costs, various pharmacoeconomic study designs and its application in the field of medicine and drug development
Clinical Pharmacokinetics-I [half life, order of kinetics, steady state]BADAR UDDIN UMAR
This document discusses key concepts in pharmacokinetics including half-life, steady state concentration, and clearance. It explains that half-life refers to the time it takes for a drug concentration to reduce by half and impacts dosing frequency. Steady state occurs when drug administration equals elimination within a dosing interval, resulting in constant levels. Clearance represents the ability of organs to remove drug from the bloodstream and is used to determine maintenance doses. The document provides examples of these principles and their clinical significance.
The document discusses evidence based medicine (EBM), which uses clinical research and other evidence to guide medical decisions. It defines EBM and outlines its key principles, objectives, and steps. EBM aims to minimize errors and optimize care quality by integrating the best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values and preferences. The document reviews the contents of EBM, the four steps to applying it including formulating questions and searching evidence, and the merits of EBM in improving patient care and reducing costs. Factors influencing the practice of EBM are also discussed.
This document discusses antimalarial drugs and their classification, mechanisms of action, and therapeutic uses. It begins by identifying the four main Plasmodium species that infect humans. It then covers individual drugs like chloroquine, primaquine, mefloquine, and artemisinin derivatives. It classifies drugs based on their therapeutic effects and chemical structures. Key points include how each drug works against the malaria parasite, their pharmacokinetics, adverse effects, and indications. Artemisinin-based combination therapy is highlighted as the recommended treatment for acute uncomplicated malaria.
This document discusses drug use during pregnancy and lactation. It notes that drug use requires special consideration as it affects both the mother and child. Many pregnant or lactating women take drugs for acute or chronic conditions. The document provides details on common drug classes used in pregnancy, considerations for drug safety and effects during each trimester, placental drug transfer, effects of pregnancy on pharmacokinetics, considerations for drug use during lactation, and general principles for minimizing risk when drug use is necessary.
This document defines drug interactions and outlines their outcomes, contributing factors, commonly involved drugs, types, mechanisms, and approaches to checking for interactions. It discusses how drug interactions can be beneficial or harmful and result from multiple drug therapy, diseases, prescribers, or noncompliance. The main types are drug-drug, drug-food, and drug-disease interactions, which can occur via pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic, or pharmacodynamic mechanisms. Factors like absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion can be affected. The role of pharmacists in monitoring interactions and educating patients is also covered, as are newer online and mobile tools for checking drug interactions.
This document discusses adverse drug reactions (ADRs), including definitions, classifications, mechanisms, and predisposing factors. It defines an ADR as an unintended, harmful reaction to a medication. ADRs are classified based on factors like type (dose-related vs unpredictable), timing (onset), and individual susceptibility. The mechanisms of different ADR types are explained in terms of pharmaceutical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic factors. Polypharmacy, multiple diseases, age, drug properties, and genetics can predispose patients to ADRs.
Pharmacovigilance is science of detection,
assessment, reporting and prevention of adverse
reactions to drug(s).
Major aims of pharmacovigilance are:
1. Early detection of hitherto unknown adverse
reactions and interactions
2. Detection of increases in frequency of (known)
adverse reactions
3. Identification of risk factors and possible
mechanisms underlying adverse reactions
4. Estimation of quantitative aspects of benefit/risk
analysis and dissemination of information needed to
improve drug prescribing and regulation.
Drug use evaluation (DUE) is a quality improvement process that reviews prescribing patterns to promote appropriate drug use. It involves identifying a drug or therapeutic area, developing criteria and standards, collecting data, evaluating results, providing feedback, and implementing interventions. The process then reevaluates drug use and revises the DUE program as needed. The presented document outlines the 11 steps of a DUE process focusing on monitoring renal function during aminoglycoside therapy.
Patient information leaflets (PILs) contain specific information about medical conditions, doses, side effects that are packaged with medicines to inform users. PILs are the European equivalent of package inserts. Manufacturers are required to include a PIL but sometimes avoid the cost. The document then outlines the key sections that should be included in a PIL, such as identification of the medicine, therapeutic indications, dosage instructions, description of side effects, and additional information. It emphasizes using plain language, short sentences, and grouping side effects by seriousness to improve patient understanding of risks.
Drug Safety & Pharmacovigilance - Introduction - Katalyst HLSKatalyst HLS
Introduction to Drug Safety & Pharmacovigilance in Pharmaceuticals, Bio-Pharmaceuticals, Medical Devices, Cosmeceuticals and Foods.
Contact:
"Katalyst Healthcares & Life Sciences"
South Plainfield, NJ, USA
info@KatalystHLS.com
Preclinical trials involve testing new drugs and medical devices on animals before human testing to assess safety and efficacy. They include various studies such as screening tests, isolated organ tests, and toxicity tests on rodents and larger animals. The goals are to determine dosing, identify adverse effects, and collect sufficient safety data to file for approval to begin clinical trials in humans under good laboratory practices. Preclinical studies help establish that initial human trials can reasonably proceed safely.
This document provides an overview of pharmacology and drug development. It defines key terms like pharmacology, pharmacy, pharmacotherapy, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. It describes the stages of drug development from pre-clinical trials to phase I-IV clinical trials. It also discusses sources of drugs like plants, microorganisms, and synthetic chemicals. The goal is to educate on properly administering drugs to patients.
This document provides an overview of pharmacology and key terminology. It discusses:
1) Definitions of pharmacology, pharmacy, pharmacotherapy and related terms.
2) Key terminology including pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, pharmacogenetics, and drug interactions.
3) The processes of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion as well as factors that influence absorption.
4) Sources of drugs including plants, animals, inorganic sources and synthetic sources. Routes of drug administration and the two major methods of dispensing drugs are also covered.
PHARMACOLOGY ..........ALL NOTES BY KKEANkkean6089
This document provides an overview of pharmacology and drug development. It defines key terms like pharmacology, pharmacy, and pharmacokinetics. It describes the process of drug development including pre-clinical trials and phases I-IV of clinical trials. It also discusses sources of drugs including plants, microorganisms, and synthetic chemicals. Adverse drug reactions like allergic reactions, tolerance, and dependence are explained. The goal of pharmacology is to administer drugs professionally and understand their mechanisms of action, interactions, and safe use.
Simplified notes for all those struggling to grasp the pharmacological concepts .
These are self help notes that go straight to the point hence making medicine so simple you'd want to major further.
This document provides an overview of medication administration and pharmacology terms. It defines key terms like drug, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and clinical pharmacology. It also outlines the ideal properties of drugs and factors that determine drug responses. The nursing process in relation to pharmacology is discussed, including assessing patients, planning treatment, evaluating responses, and educating patients. Regulations around drug names, sources of information, and the FDA are also summarized.
The document discusses various pharmacologic principles including:
- Definitions of key terms like drugs, pharmacology, and drug names
- Concepts in pharmacokinetics like absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
- Mechanisms of drug action in pharmacodynamics
- Approaches to drug therapy in pharmacotherapeutics
- Factors that influence drug effects and interactions
This document provides an overview of pharmacology topics for nurses, including the nursing process in pharmacology, drug names, pharmacology basics, educating patients, drug interactions, routes of administration, considerations across the life span, and schedules of controlled substances. It discusses assessing, analyzing, planning, implementing, and evaluating the nursing care related to drug administration and monitoring therapeutic and adverse effects. Key aspects of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacotherapeutics are defined. The importance of patient education on drugs is emphasized.
Administration of Medication, Unit - 12 FONAtul Yadav
Administration of Medication
1.Introduction of medication ,drug
2. Drug
3. Medication
4. Name of drugs or Nomenclature
5. Classification of drugs
6. Classification of drugs according to their action
7. Terminologies of drugs
8. Routes of drug administration
a. Oral route
b. Sublingual route
c. Rectal route
d. Inhalation route
e. Cutaneous route
f. Parental route
9. Intravenous
10. Interamuscular
11. Intradermal
12. subcutaneous
13. Purposes of medication
14. Principles of medication
15. Medication errors
16. Drugs form
17. Storage and maintenance of drugs
18. Effects of drugs on the body
19. Factors affecting drugs response
20. Factors affecting drug absorption
21. Systems of drug measurement
22. Converting measurements units
23. Dose calcuations
24. Abbreviations used in drugs
25. Abbreviations uses in pharmacology
26. Abbreviations use in nursing
27. Oral drug administration equipments
28. Oral administration procedure
29. Parental administration procedure
30. Cannula
31. Types of cannula
32. Needle stick injuries
33. Preventing needle stick injuries
This document introduces key concepts in pharmacology. It defines drugs, pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, and therapeutics. An ideal drug is effective, safe, and selective, but in reality no drug is ideal as all can cause harm and have side effects. The objective of drug therapy is to provide maximum benefit with minimum harm by considering factors like administration, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and individual patient variations.
This document introduces key concepts in pharmacology. It defines drug, pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, and therapeutics. An ideal drug is effective, safe, and selective, but no drug is truly ideal. The objective of drug therapy is to provide maximum benefit with minimum harm. How individuals respond depends on administration, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and individual variations.
The document defines key terms related to pharmacology including:
- Drugs and their chemical names, generic names, and trade names
- The study of how drugs are administered and acted upon in the body, covering areas like pharmaceutics, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacotherapeutics
- Routes of drug administration including oral, parenteral, and topical routes and how they impact drug absorption
- What the body does to drugs through processes like metabolism and excretion
- Factors that can influence these processes and affect drug action
- Potential therapeutic effects and adverse drug reactions
Briefly described by Dr. Nizar Muhammad, with a clinical perspective, for the students of Pharmacy and specially for nursing students, the data is taken from an american book, named as Clinical Pharmacology_anonim.
1. The most common route is oral, as it is noninvasive, convenient, and inexpensive. However, oral drugs may irritate the GI tract or have an unpleasant taste.
2. Other common routes include topical administration to the skin, eyes, ears, or nose. Subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous routes involve injection under the skin, into muscles, or directly into veins or arteries.
3. The route chosen depends on factors like the drug's intended site of action, ability to be absorbed, potential for side effects, and patient factors like ability to swallow. Invasive routes result in faster onset but have greater risks
1. The most common route is oral, as it is noninvasive, convenient, and inexpensive. However, oral drugs may irritate the GI tract or have an unpleasant taste.
2. Other common routes include topical application to the skin, eyes, ears, nose, or lungs. Sublingual administration allows for rapid absorption into the bloodstream.
3. Parenteral routes like intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous injection deliver drugs systemically but break the skin barrier, requiring sterile technique. They can administer large volumes or act more rapidly than oral drugs.
1. The most common route is oral, as it is noninvasive, convenient, and inexpensive. However, oral drugs may irritate the GI tract or have an unpleasant taste.
2. Other common routes include topical application to the skin, eyes, ears, nose, or lungs. Sublingual administration allows for rapid absorption into the bloodstream.
3. Parenteral routes like subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, and intradermal injections deliver drugs systemically but break the skin barrier, requiring sterile technique. Intramuscular injections can deliver larger volumes of drugs than subcutaneous injections.
1. The most common route is oral, as it is noninvasive, convenient, and inexpensive. However, oral drugs may irritate the GI tract or have an unpleasant taste.
2. Other common routes include topical application to the skin, eyes, ears, nose, or lungs. Sublingual administration allows for rapid absorption into the bloodstream.
3. Parenteral routes like subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, and intradermal injections deliver drugs systemically but break the skin barrier, requiring sterile technique. Intramuscular injections can deliver larger volumes of drugs than subcutaneous injections.
The document discusses various pharmacologic principles including:
- Definitions of drug, pharmacology, and drug names
- Branches of pharmacology including pharmaceutics, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, pharmacotherapeutics, and pharmacognosy
- Pharmacokinetic concepts of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
- Factors that influence drug absorption
- Pharmacodynamic concepts of drug action, onset, peak effect, and duration
- Types of drug therapies and importance of monitoring for effectiveness and adverse effects
The document discusses various pharmacologic principles including:
- Definitions of key terms like drug, pharmacology, generic names, and trade names
- The branches of pharmacology including pharmaceutics, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, pharmacotherapeutics, and pharmacognosy
- Details of pharmacokinetics concepts like absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, half-life, and factors affecting absorption
- Pharmacodynamics concepts including drug actions, onset/peak/duration, and mechanisms of action
- Pharmacotherapeutic concepts such as types of therapies and monitoring drug therapy including therapeutic index, interactions, side effects, and adverse drug reactions
Pharmacology is a branch of medicine, biology and pharmaceutical sciences concerned with drug or medication action, where a drug may be defined as any artificial, natural, or endogenous molecule which exerts a biochemical or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism.
1) The pleural space is located between the lungs and chest wall, containing a thin layer of fluid. Fluid enters and leaves the space constantly through the parietal and visceral pleura.
2) Fluid accumulates in the pleural space when the rate of fluid formation exceeds the rate of lymphatic drainage. Transudative effusions result from systemic factors altering fluid movement, while exudative effusions occur when the pleura are inflamed.
3) Many diseases can cause pleural effusions by increasing pleural capillary pressure, permeability, or decreasing serum oncotic pressure. Inflammation of the pleura is a common cause of exudative effusions.
This document provides information about myotonic dystrophy (DM), a hereditary progressive muscle disease. There are two main types, DM1 and DM2. DM is caused by an expanded CTG repeat in the DMPK gene on chromosome 19, while DM2 is caused by a similar mutation in the CNBP gene on chromosome 3. Symptoms vary but can include myotonia, muscle weakness, cataracts, and arrhythmias. There is no cure, but treatment focuses on managing symptoms and surveillance of complications.
Leukocytosis is an increased white blood cell count in the blood. There are five main types: neutrophilia, lymphocytosis, monocytosis, eosinophilia, and basophilia. Neutrophilia is most common and usually due to bacterial infection. Eosinophilia can be caused by allergic disorders, parasites, and some cancers. Lymphocytosis is seen with viral infections and lymphomas. Leukopenia and neutropenia involve decreased white blood cell and neutrophil counts respectively, increasing infection risk. Lymphoma involves abnormal lymphocyte proliferation. Leukemia includes acute and chronic forms, with acute being more aggressive and involving immature cells.
Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest significant amounts of lactose due to a deficiency of the enzyme lactase. The majority of adults worldwide do not produce sufficient lactase to break down lactose. Symptoms include bloating, cramps, and diarrhea after consuming milk or milk products. Lactose intolerance is diagnosed through medical history, physical exam, hydrogen breath tests, and stool acidity tests. Management strategies include consuming lactose-free milk and alternatives, taking lactase supplements, or consuming small amounts of lactose at a time.
Infections in immunocompromised patientsجهاد الخريصي
This document provides information about immunodeficiency disorders including their causes, types, clinical features, and diagnosis. It discusses primary immunodeficiencies caused by defects in the immune system components like B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and complements. It also describes secondary immunodeficiencies caused by non-immunogenic factors. Specific disorders covered include B-cell defects, T-cell deficiencies, phagocytic disorders, complement deficiencies, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The modes of transmission, infectious agents, associated diseases, and structures of HIV/AIDS are detailed.
Cardiac muscle consists of cross-striated cardiomyocytes that are joined end-to-end by specialized junctions called intercalated discs. These discs contain desmosomes and gap junctions. Desmosomes bind cells together while gap junctions allow action potentials to spread between cells, causing the heart to contract as a syncytium. Within intercalated discs are also Purkinje fibers, which are modified cardiac muscle cells that conduct electrical signals faster than normal cardiomyocytes. This allows for coordinated contraction of the heart.
This document discusses pre-hepatic jaundice, which is caused by excess production of unconjugated bilirubin from hemolysis that exceeds the liver's ability to conjugate it. The key characteristics are high levels of indirect bilirubin in the plasma and dark urine and stool from high levels of urobilinogen and fecal urobilin. Causes of increased bilirubin production include hereditary factors like sickle cell anemia, enzyme deficiencies like G6PD deficiency, infections, drugs, and conditions that cause hypersplenism. Neonatal jaundice is also discussed, with causes including increased bilirubin production from more hemolysis in neonates as well
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease caused by Leishmania parasites that infects 1.5 million people per year, with 90% of cases occurring in 7 countries including Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia, the disease is prevalent in the Al-Hasa Oasis region and was commonly found on the high plateaus and foothills of the Asir range in the southwest. Records from the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health show the disease reached epidemic levels in 1973 before declining to a plateau in the mid-1980s. Gender and age distribution data from 1956-2002 indicate more cases among males and those aged 15-30 years old.
The document discusses cancer screening and some of its potential harms and benefits. It notes that screening can potentially avoid 3-35% of premature cancer deaths depending on assumptions, but also has several potential downsides. These include false positives that cause unnecessary anxiety and procedures, overdiagnosis of conditions that would not have become clinically significant, and false negatives that delay diagnosis and treatment. The document also provides information about breast cancer screening methods like clinical breast exams and mammograms, as well as cervical cancer screening via Pap tests.
Join educators from the US and worldwide at this year’s conference, themed “Strategies for Proficiency & Acquisition,” to learn from top experts in world language teaching.
How to Add Colour Kanban Records in Odoo 17 NotebookCeline George
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Views in Odoo - Advanced Views - Pivot View in Odoo 17Celine George
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How to Show Sample Data in Tree and Kanban View in Odoo 17Celine George
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Slide Presentation from a Doctoral Virtual Open House presented on June 30, 2024 by staff and faculty of Capitol Technology University
Covers degrees offered, program details, tuition, financial aid and the application process.
2. Objectives
Define clinical pharmacology
Get an idea about history of Clinical Pharmacology
Explain responsibilities of Clinical pharmacologists
Explain drug Names and Categories
Describe development of drug
Describe drug Activity Within the Body
3. What clinical pharmacology means?
Clinical pharmacology is the science of drugs
and their clinical use.
It has a broad scope, from the discovery of new
target molecules, to the effects of drug usage in
whole populations.
4. Clinical pharmacology connects the gap between
medical practice and laboratory science.
The main objective is to promote the safety of
prescription, maximize the drug effects and
minimize the side effects.
5. History of Clinical Pharmacology
Clinical Pharmacology, in theory, has been practiced
for centuries through observing the effects of herbal
remedies and early drugs on humans.
scientific advances allowed scientists to combine the
study of physiological effects with biological effects.
the first major breakthrough when scientists used
clinical pharmacology to discover insulin.
6. discoveries clinical pharmacology has expanded to
be a multidisciplinary field and has contributed to
the understanding of drug interaction, therapeutic
efficacy and safety in humans.
Over time clinical pharmacologists have been able to
make more exact measurements and personalize
drug therapies.
7. Clinical pharmacologists
have a rigorous medical and scientific training
which enables them to evaluate evidence and
produce new data through well designed studies.
Clinical pharmacologists must have access to enough
outpatients for clinical care, teaching and education,
and research as well be supervised by medical
specialists.
8. Responsibilities of Clinical pharmacologists
Their responsibilities to patients include, but are not
limited to analyzing adverse drug effects:Therapeutics
toxicology including reproductive toxicology
cardiovascular risks
perioperative drug management
psychopharmacology.
9. In addition, the application of genetic,
biochemical, or viral therapeutic techniques
has led to a clear appreciation of the
mechanisms involved in drug action.
10. Drug Names and Categories
*Categories: Chemical; generic; official; trade or
brand name
Several trade names: Use generic name to avoid
confusion
After drug approval FDA assigns categories:
Prescription
Nonprescription
Controlled substance
11. Drug Classes and Categories
Drugs are classified by the chemical type of the active ingredient or by
the way it is used to treat a particular condition :-
PRESCRIPTION DRUGS
The prescription contains the name of the drug
the dosage
the method and times of administration
Signature of the licensed health care provider
12. NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS
OTC
ASA may cause GI bleeding and salicylism
Labeling provides the consumer with info regarding the
drug, dosage, contraindications, precautions and
adverser reactions
Consumers are urged to read the directions carefully
prior to taking any OTC drugs
13. Controlled Substances
The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 established a
schedule or classification system for drugs with
abuse potential
Act regulates the manufacture, distribution and
dispensing of these drugs
14. Drug Development-FYI
Process of drug development: Long and arduous -
7 to 12 years or longer
FDA: Approves new drugs, monitors current drugs
- adverse/toxic reactions
Development of drug:
Pre-FDA phase
FDA phase
15. Drug Development (cont’d)
Clinical testing: Three phases
Phase
I: 20 to 100 volunteers involved
Phase II: Test performed on people having the
disease for which drug might be effective
Phase III: Drug given to large numbers of
patients in medical research centers that
provided information about adverse reactions
16. Drug Development (cont’d)
Phase IV: Postmarketing surveillance
Ongoing
review: Particular attention to adverse
reactions
Healthcare professionals: Help with surveillance;
report adverse effects to FDA using MedWatch
17. Drug Activity Within the Body
Drugs: Act in various ways in the body
Oral drugs: Three phases
Pharmaceutics:
Dissolution of drug occurs; drugs
must be soluble to be absorbed
Pharmacokinetics: Absorption; distribution;
metabolism; excretion
Pharmacodynamics
18. Pharmaceutic Phase
Liquid and parenteral drugs: Already
dissolved - quickly absorbed
Solid forms of drugs - Tablets or capsules:
Disintegrate into small particles; dissolve
into body fluids in GI tract
Enteric-coating tablets: Disintegrates after
reaching alkaline environment of small
intestine
20. Absorption
Drug particles within gastrointestinal tract:
Moves into body fluids
Factors influencing rate of absorption:
Route of administration; solubility of drug
First-pass effect: Drug absorbed by small
intestine; liver first metabolizes drug;
remaining drug not sufficient to produce
therapeutic effect
Patient needs higher dosage for desired
effect
21. Distribution
Systematic circulation: Drug distributed to
various body tissues and target sites interact with specific receptors in body
Factors affecting distribution: Protein
binding (free/bound drugs); blood flow;
solubility (lipid-soluble drugs/water-soluble
drugs)
Quick distribution: Heart; liver; kidneys
Slow distribution: Internal organs; skin;
muscle
22. Metabolism and Excretion
Metabolism: Body changes drug to a more or
less active form for excretion
Excretion: Elimination of drugs from the
body
Patients with kidney disease: Require
dosage reduction and careful monitoring of
kidney function
Older adults: Diminished kidney function require careful monitoring and lower
dosages
23. *Half-life
Time required for the body to eliminate 50% of the
drug
Plan the frequency of dosing
Drugs with short half-life: Administered frequently
Drugs with long half-life: Require less frequent
dosing
*Difficulty in drug excretion: Increases half-life
and risk of toxicity
24. Onset, Peak, and Duration
Onset of action: Time between drug
administration and beginning of therapeutic
effect
Peak concentration: Absorption rate equals
elimination rate
Duration of action: Time for drug to produce
therapeutic effect
25. Pharmacodynamic Phase
Pharmacodynamics: Study of drug
mechanisms producing
biochemical/physiologic changes in body
Primary effect of drug: Desired or
therapeutic effect
Secondary effect of drug: Other desirable or
undesirable effects
Drugs exert action - two mechanisms:
Alteration in cellular form/environment
26. Receptor-mediated Drug Action
Drug interacts with receptor; function of a
cell alters; drug molecule joins with reactive
site (receptor) on surface of cell
Agonist: Binds with and stimulates receptor
- therapeutic response
Antagonist: Joins with but does not
stimulate receptors; prevents drug response;
competitive/noncompetitive
Effects of number of available receptor sites;
potent drugs
27. Drug Use and Pregnancy
Drugs administered during the first trimester: May
cause teratogenic effects
Most drugs: Contraindicated unless benefits
outweighs risk
Pregnant women: Use drugs/herbal supplements
only after consultation
Risks of smoking and drinking: Low birth weight;
premature birth; fetal alcohol syndrome
Addictive drugs: Children born with addiction
Such as cocaine or heroin
28. Various Drug Reactions
Allergic drug reactions
Drug idiosyncrasy
Drug tolerance
Cumulative drug effect
Toxic reactions
Pharmacogenetic reactions
29. Allergic Drug Reactions (Hypersensitivity
Reactions)
*Usually begins after more than one dose of the drug is
given; body views drug as antigen
Signs and symptoms: Itching; skin rashes; hives;
wheezing; cyanosis; sudden loss of consciousness;
swelling of eyes, lips, or tongue
Anaphylactic shock; hypotension and shock;
*angioedema, dyspnea, urticaria
Angioedema most often occurs around the eyes, lips,
mouth and throat
30. Drug Idiosyncrasy
Unusual, abnormal reaction to drug; different from
expected reaction
Cause: Believed to be due to genetic deficiency
31. Drug Tolerance
• *Decreased response to a drug: Requires increased
dosage for desired effect
• Example: Narcotics or tranquilizers taken for a long
time
32. Cumulative Drug Effect
Patients with liver and kidney disease: Body is unable to
metabolize and excrete one dose of drug before next dose is
given
Dose lowered to prevent toxic drug reaction
33. Toxic Reactions
• *Drug is administered in large dosages;
blood concentration levels exceed
therapeutic levels
• Reverse drug toxicity: Administer another
drug as antidote; monitor drugs with low
safety margin
34. Drug Interactions
One drug interacts and interferes with the action of
another drug
Oral anticoagulants; oral hypoglycemics; antiinfectives; antiarrhythmics; cardiac glycosides;
alcohol
Effects: Additive; synergistic; antagonistic
35. Additive Drug Reaction
Combined effect of two drugs is equal to sum of each drug given
alone (1 + 1 = 2)
Synergistic Drug Reaction
*Drug synergism: Drugs interact with each other and produce a
sum greater than the sum of their separate actions (1 + 1 = 4)
Antagonistic Drug Reaction
One drug interferes with action of another:
Neutralization/decrease in effect of one drug
36. Drug-food Interactions
Food may impair or enhance its absorption
Drug
taken on empty stomach (captopril)
Drugs that irritate stomach; cause nausea;
vomiting; epigastric distress: Given with meals
(anti-inflammatory drugs; salicylates)
Drug–food mixture: Drugs combine with a drug
forming an insoluble food (tetracycline
administered with dairy products)