Chapter 1 computer fundamentals

CHAPTER – 01
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Unit 1
Computer Systems and Organisation
(CSO)
XI
Computer Science (083)
Board : CBSE

Unit I
Computer Systems and Organisation (CSO)
(10 Theory + 02 Practical)
Department of Computer Science, Sainik School Amaravathinagar)
Cell :9431453730
Email : praveenkumarjigajinni@gmail.com
Praveen M Jigajinni
DCSc & Engg,PGDCA,ADCA,MSc(IT),MCA,Mtech, MPhil (CS)
Prepared by
Courtesy CBSE

What you are going to study in this Unit II?
 Basic computer organisation: description of a
computer system and mobile
 system, CPU, memory, hard disk, I/O, battery.
 Types of software: application, System, utility.
 Memory Units: bit, byte, MB, GB, TB, and PB.
 Boolean logic: OR, AND, NAND, NOR, XOR, NOT,
truth tables, De Morgan’s laws
 Information representation: numbers in base 2,
8, 16, binary addition

What you are going to study in this Unit II?
 Strings: ASCII, UTF8, UTF32, ISCII (Indian script
code), Unicode
 Basic concepts of Flowchart
 Concept of Compiler & Interpreter
 Running a program: Notion of an operating
system, how an operating system
 runs a program, idea of loading, operating system
as a resource manager.
 Concept of cloud computing, cloud
(public/private), introduction to parallel
computing

Courtesy CBSE
Computer Fundamentals
After studying this session students will be able to:
Learn about various generations of computer
Understand the basic operation of a computer
Study the functional components and their interconnections
Understand the concept of booting
Learn about classification of computers

What is Computer?
 A computer is a device that can
be instructed to carry out sequences
of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically. Modern computers have
the ability to follow generalized sets of
operations, called programs. These
programs enable computers to perform an
extremely wide range of tasks.
 Source Wikipedia

What is Data?
 Data. Data in a computer terminology mean
raw facts and figures.
 For ex-mohan,1977 etc.
What is Information?
means what we get after processing.

Data Vs. Information?
 you should understand that what goes in
the computers is data and what comes out
of them is information.
 This process of turning data into
information is also known as information
processing cycle.

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION
Computer organisation refers to logical
structure of a computer how its
components are connected to one another
ALU Registers
Control Memory
Memory Memory Memory

Functional components of a Computer

Input Unit
The input unit consists of input
devices that are attached to the
computer.
These devices take input and convert
it into binary language that the
computer understands.
Some of the common input devices
are keyboard, mouse, joystick,
scanner etc.

Central Processing Unit(CPU)
Once the information is entered
into the computer by the input
device, the processor processes it.
The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control
centre of the computer.
 As the CPU is located on a small
chip, it is also called the
Microprocessor.

Central Processing Unit(CPU)
• The CPU has three main
components which are responsible for
different functions –

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU, as its name suggests
performs mathematical calculations
and takes logical decisions.
Arithmetic calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
Logical decisions involve comparison
of two data items to see which
one is larger or smaller or equal.

Control Unit (CU)
The Control unit coordinates and
controls the data flow in and out
of CPU and also controls all the
operations of ALU, memory registers
and also input/output units.
It is also responsible for carrying out
all the instructions stored in the
program.

Memory Registers
A register is a temporary unit of
memory in the CPU.
These receive data/information and
then this data/information is held in
them as per the requirement.

Output Unit
The output unit consists of output
devices that are attached with the
computer.
It converts the binary data coming
from CPU to human understandable
from. The
common output devices are monitor,
printer, plotter etc.

Classification of Computers
The computers can be classified
based on the technology being used as:
Digital Computers
 Analog Computers &
Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers
These computers are capable of
processing information in discrete
form.
In digital technology data which can
be in the form of letters, symbols or
numbers is represented in binary form
i.e. 0s and 1s.

Digital Computers
Binary digits are easily expressed in a
digital computer by the presence (1) or
absence (0) of current or voltage.
It computes by counting and adding
operations.

Digital Computers
The digital computers are used in
industrial, business and scientific
applications.
They are quite suitable for large
volume data processing.

Digital Computers
EXAMPLES:
IBM PC, HP, LENOVO, DELL, ...etc
Apple Macintosh
Calculators
Digital watches etc

Analog Computers
An Analog computer works on
continuously changeable aspects of
physical phenomenon such as fluid
pressure, mechanical motion and
electrical quantities.
These computers measure changes in
continuous physical quantities say
current and voltage.

Analog Computers
These computers are used to process
data generated by ongoing physical
processes.
A thermometer is an example of an
analog computer since it measures the
change in mercury level continuously.

Analog Computers
Although the accuracy of an analog
computer is less as compared to digital
computers, yet it is used to process
data generated by changing physical
quantities especially when the
response to change is fast.

Analog Computers
Most present day Analog computers
are well suited to simulating systems. A
simulator helps to conduct
experiments repeatedly in real time
environment.
Some of the common examples are
simulations in aircrafts, nuclear power
plants, hydraulic and electronic
networks.

Analog Computers
Examples
 Thermometer.
Analog clock.
 Speedometer.
 Tire pressure gauge.

Analog Computers
 Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central
Fire Control System
Deltar
Kerrison Predictor
Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's
Analogue Calculating Machines based
on "fusee sans fin"
Librascope, aircraft weight and
balance computer

Analog Computers
ADVANTAGES:
Analog computer has come to refer to
devices and media that represent:
Store images
Sound, motion pictures, etc.

Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:
 Analog computers can have a very
wide range of complexity.
Slide rules and monographs are the
simplest, while naval gun fire control
computers and large hybrid
digital/analog computers were among
the most complicated.

Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:
Very complicated for containing
output for the users some time.

Hybrid Computers
These use both analog and digital
technology.
It has the speed of analog computer
and the accuracy of a digital computer.
 It may accept digital or analog
signals but an extensive conversion of
data from digital to analog and analog
to digital has to be done.

Hybrid Computers
Generally the analog components
provide efficient processing of
differential equations while the digital
part deals with logical operations of
the system.
Hence benefits of both analog and
digital computing are readily available.

Hybrid Computers
 Hybrid Computers are used as a cost
effective means for complex
simulations.
Examples: Computer used in
hospitals to measure the heartbeat of
the patient. Devices used in petrol
pump.

Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer exhibits features of
both analog computers and digital
computers. It applies the real-time
speed of the analog computer and the
accuracy of the digital computer to the
solution of problems that are beyond
the capabilities of either. An example
was the HYDAC 2400, a hybrid computer
released by EAI in 1963.

Hybrid Computers
An example was the HYDAC 2400, a hybrid computer
released by EAI in 1963.

Classification of Digital Computers
 The digital computers are classified
according to their computing
capabilities.

Classification of Digital Computers
 The various types of digital
computers are :
Micro Computers
Mini Computers
Main Frames
Super Computers

Micro Computers
These are also known as Personal
Computers. These type of digital
computer uses a microprocessor (a
CPU on a single chip) and include both
desktops and laptops.

Micro Computers
These computers can work on small
volume of data, are very versatile and
can handle variety of applications.
These computers are being used as
work stations, CAD, multimedia and
advertising applications.

Micro Computers
Small portable computers such as
PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and
tablets with wireless computing
technology are increasingly becoming
popular.

Mini Computers
These computers can support
multiple users working simultaneously
on the same machine.
These are mainly used in an
organization where computers
installed in various departments are
interconnected. These computers are
useful for small business organizations.

Mini Computers
Examples
Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC
1700.
DEC PDP and VAX series.
Data General Nova.
Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series, HP
2100 series, HP1000 series.

Mini Computers
Examples
Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series.
IBM midrange computers.
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32.
Varian 620 100 series.

Mainframe Computers
These computers are large and very
powerful computers with very high
memory capacity.
These can process huge databases
such as census at extremely fast rate.
They are suitable for big organizations,
banks, industries etc. and can support
hundreds of users simultaneously on
the network.

Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
presentMarket name700/7000 series
System/360
System/370
IBM 308X
IBM 3090
System/390
zSeries 900, 800, 990, and 890
System z9
System z10

Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
present Market name 700/7000 series
zEnterprise System (z196, zEC12, z13,
z14)
ArchitectureSystem/360
System/370
S/370-XA
ESA/370
ESA/390
z/Architecture

Super Computers
These are fastest and very expensive
computers.
They can execute billions of
instructions per second.

Super Computers
These are multiprocessor, parallel
systems suitable for specialized
complex scientific applications
involving huge amounts of
mathematical applications such as
weather forecasting.

Super Computers
The main difference between a
supercomputer and a mainframe is
that a supercomputer executes fewer
programs as fast as possible whereas a
mainframe executes many programs
concurrently.

Super Computers
Year Supercomputer Location
2016 Sunway TaihuLight Wuxi, China
2013 NUDT Tianhe-2 Guangzhou, China
2012 Cray Titan Oak Ridge, U.S.
2012 IBM Sequoia Livermore, U.S.
2011 Fujitsu K computer Kobe, Japan
2010 Tianhe-IA Tianjin, China
2009 Cray Jaguar Oak Ridge, U.S.
2008 IBM Roadrunner Los Alamos, U.S.

Hardware and Software
A computer consists of both hardware and
software and both are equally important for
the working of the computer system.
The electronic components of a computer
system that we can see and touch are called
hardware.
Software is a general term used for
computer programs that control the
operations of the computer.

Hardware and Software
A program is a sequence of instructions
that perform a particular task. A set of
programs form a software.
It is the software which gives hardware its
capability.
Hardware is of no use without software
and software cannot be used without
hardware.

Types of Software
Software can be broadly are
categorized as:
System Software
Application Software
Utility Software

System Software
System Software is the software that
is directly related to coordinating
computer operations and performs
tasks associated with controlling and
utilizing computer hardware. These
programs assist in running application
programs and are designed to control
the operation of a computer system.

System Software
System software directs the computer
what to do, when to do and how to
do. System software can be further
categorized into:-
Operating System
Language Translators

Operating System
 An Operating system is the most
important system software.
It is a set of programs that control
and supervise the hardware of a
computer and also provide services to
application software, programmers
and users. Ex :-

Operating System
Some of the popular operating
systems used in personal computers
are DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux,
Solaris, etc.

COMPILER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.

INTERPRETER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.

An application software is bought by
the user to perform specific
applications or tasks.
Say for example making a document
or making a presentation or handling
inventory or managing the employee
database.
Application Software

 An application software can be of
two types:
General Purpose Application
Software &
Customized Application software.

 Some of the application software is
made for the common users for day to
day applications and uses.
These are also referred as Office
Tools.
 The users may use them in the
manner they want.
Application Software - General Purpose

 Some of the popular types of general
purpose application software are:
Word Processor
Presentation Tools
Spreadsheet Packages
Database Management System
Application Software - General Purpose

Customized Software is one which is
tailor made as per the user’s
requirement. Such type of software is
customer specific.
 It is made keeping in mind the
individual needs of the user and so are
also referred as Domain Specific Tools
Application Software - Customized
Software

Examples:
Inventory Management System &
Purchasing System
School Management System
Payroll System
Financial Accounting
Hotel Management
Reservation System
Weather Forecasting system
Application Software - Customized
Software

Memory is one of the most
important components of a
computer system as it stores data
and instructions.
Every memory chip contains
thousands of memory locations. In
the computer, the data is stored in
the form of bits and bytes.
Memory

A bit is the smallest storage unit of
memory. A nibble is a collection of 4
bits. Eight bits combined together to
form a single byte, which in turn
represents a single character
Memory

1
CPU
Registers
2
Cache
Level 1
Level 2
3
RAM
Physical
Virtual
4
Storage
Devices
ROM/BIOS
Removable
Devices
Network/Inte
rnet Storage
Hard
Drives
Permanent
Storage areas
Temporary Storage areas

Types of Memories
The computer memories can be
divided into following categories:
Primary Memory
Cache Memory
Secondary memory

Primary Memory
Primary memory or main
memory is a Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (MOS) memory
used for storing program and
data during the execution of the
program. It is directly accessible
to CPU.

Primary Memory
Broadly primary memory
can be of two types :–
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read only memory).

Random Access Memory (RAM)
the memory can be accessed from
any desired location randomly.
The instructions and data that we
input into the computer are stored in
the RAM of the Computer.
It is a read/write memory, so data
can be both read from and written to
the RAM.

It is a volatile memory and loses its
contents when the power is switched
off or interrupted.
Nowadays RAMs are available in
gigabytes. The normal memory
access time of a RAM is 20-80 ns.

RAM can be broadly classified into
two categories:
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and
 Static RAM (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
It consists of a transistor and a
capacitor that stores electric charge.
The DRAMs are physically smaller,
cheaper and slower memories. They
are slower because the data stored in
them needs to continuously
refreshed and this consumes lot of
processor time.

Each refresh operation takes
several CPU cycles to complete. This
is because a capacitor tends to loose
charge over a period of time which
needs to be refreshed again and
again.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

This type of RAM is large in physical
size but is an expensive and faster
memory.
It is faster because it is made up of
flip flops to store data and these flip
flops do not require any refreshing.
Static RAM

Static RAM is also volatile and is
easier to use as compared to dynamic
RAM. These are used in specialized
applications.
Static RAM

Its non volatile memory, ie, the
information stored in it, is not lost
even if the power supply goes off. It’s
used for the permanent storage of
information. It also posses random
access property. Information can not
be written into a ROM by the
users/programmers. In other words
the contents of ROMs are decided by
the manufactures.
ROM

(i) PROM : It’s programmable ROM. Its
contents are decided by the user. The
user can store permanent programs,
data etc in a PROM. The data is fed
into it using a PROM programs.
Types of ROM

(ii) EPROM : An EPROM is an erasable
PROM. The stored data in EPROM’s
can be erased by exposing it to UV
light for about 20 min. It’s not easy to
erase it because the EPROM IC has to
be removed from the computer and
exposed to UV light. The entire data is
erased and not selected portions by
the user. EPROM’s are cheap and
reliable.
Types of ROM

(iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
PROM) : The chip can be erased &
reprogrammed on the board easily
byte by byte. It can be erased with in
a few milliseconds. There is a limit on
the number of times the EEPROM’s
can be reprogrammed, i.e.; usually
around 10,000 times.
Types of ROM

Its an electrically erasable &
programmable permanent type
memory. It uses one transistor
memory all resulting in high packing
density, low power consumption,
lower cost & higher reliability. Its used
in all power, digital cameras, MP3
players etc.
Flash Memory

 Cache memory is a special high
speed memory made up of high speed
static RAMs.
It is used to hold frequently
accessed data and instructions.
We know that the processing speed
of CPU is much more than the main
memory access time of the computer.
Cache Memory

This means the CPU has to wait for
a substantial amount of time.
Alternatively we have the cache
memory which is a small, expensive
but fast memory that is placed
between the CPU and the main
memory.
Cache Memory

Whenever some data is required,
the CPU first looks into cache.
If data is found, we call it a cache hit
and the information is transferred to
the CPU.
In case of a miss, the main memory
is accessed.
Cache Memory

There are two types of cache
memory:
Cache Memory
L1 cache: It is small and is built inside
the CPU. It is fast as compared to L2
cache
L2 cache: It is large but slower and is
mounted on the motherboard

Secondary Memory
The major limitation of primary
memory is that it has limited storage
capacity and is volatile.
To overcome this limitation we have
secondary memory storage devices.
This type of memory is also called
external memory. For example Floppy
disk, hard disk, USB drives, CD/DVDs

Chapter 1 computer fundamentals

Hard disk
A hard disk consists of one or more
circular disks called platters which are
mounted on a common spindle. Each
surface of a platter is coated with a
magnetic material. Both surfaces of
each disk are capable of storing data
except the top and bottom disk where
only the inner surface is used.

Hard disk
The information is recorded on the
surface of the rotating disk by magnetic
read/write heads. These heads are
joined to a common arm known as
access arm. This arm moves over the
surface of the rotating disk as shown in
the figure (next slide)

Hard disk
Information is recorded on each of
these disks in the form of concentric
circles called tracks which are further
divided into sectors. Hard drives
however, are not very portable and are
primarily used internally in a computer
system. But external hard disks are also
available as a substitute for portable
storage. Today the hard disks have the
storage capacity of several gigabytes to
terabytes.

OPTICAL DISKS
An optical disk is primarily used as a portable
and secondary storage device. It can store more data
than the previous generation of magnetic storage
media, and has a relatively longer lifespan. Compact
disks (CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) and Blu-
ray disks are currently the most commonly used
forms of optical disks. These disks are generally used
to:
Distribute software to customers.
Store large amounts of data such as music, images
and videos.
Transfer data to different computers or devices.
Back up data from a local machine.

Batteries
A battery is a device consisting of one or
more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices
such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power,
its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode.
What is battery? Courtesy: Wikipedia

Computer Batteries
There are three computer batteries types used
with computers
1. Backup Battery (CMOS)
2. Bridge Battery
3. Main Battery

The Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor chip usually abbreviated as
CMOS chip is powered by the CMOS battery.
The CMOS battery, unlike the other battery
types is present in each and every computer.
They are small in size (coin-sized) and generally
the lifetime of the motherboard (say 10 years).
The actual function of this CMOS battery is to
power the CMOS chip which stores the clock
settings and hardware settings.
1. Backup Battery (CMOS)

The Bridge battery is not part of every
computer. It is only limited to the laptops and
that too not in all of them. So as the name
suggests, it is an auxiliary power source which
keeps laptop alive when the main battery is
replaced. It is not as big or powerful as main
battery but can take care of the power
requirements in that short span of time. Most
people know it by the name, backup battery.
2. Bridge Battery

The Main battery is the ultimate alternative
source that makes laptops portable. It has the
capacity to store charge and supply it to the
components whenever required. These are made of
several distinct battery technologies and here are a
few popular technologies among the lot:
1. Nickel Cadmium (NiCd)
2. Lithium Ion (Li-ion)
3. Main Battery

3. Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH)
4. Lithium Ion Polymer (Li-ion polymer)
Most of the present laptops are equipped
with Lithium ion and Lithium Polymer batteries.
3. Main Battery

CLASS TEST
Time: 40 Min Max Marks: 20
1. Write a types of softwares 05
2. Write a note on battery 05
3. Write a note on Hard disk 05
4. Explain the types of memories 05

Chapter 1 computer fundamentals

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