biological foundation of behaviour discussed by including, structure and functions of the brain, nervous system, impulse transmission and the disorders of dementia and delirium, rehabilitation, and its types
The document discusses the central nervous system. It begins by describing the general design of the nervous system, noting that the CNS contains over 100 billion neurons and synapses allow signals to pass in a forward direction. It then discusses the divisions of the nervous system, describing the central nervous system as consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord functions to transmit sensory and motor signals and mediate reflexes. The document goes on to describe the structure and tracts of the spinal cord, as well as the sensory and motor parts of the nervous system. It discusses the different levels of function in the CNS including the spinal cord, lower brain, and higher brain levels. The document concludes by describing CNS synapses and various types
Review Of Anatomy And Physiology Of The Nervousmycomic
The document reviews the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. It describes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. It discusses the structure and function of neurons, classification of neurons, and the components and roles of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves and vascular supply. It provides an overview of the organization, tissues and pathways involved in the nervous system.
The document summarizes key aspects of biology and behavior related to the brain, nervous system, and glands. It discusses:
- The structure and functions of neurons, glial cells, synapses, and neurotransmitters.
- The two main divisions of the nervous system - the central nervous system (CNS) composed of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system which connects to the rest of the body.
- An overview of the major regions and structures of the brain including the cerebral cortex, lobes, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and how they contribute to functions like memory, movement, sensory processing and language.
Cognitive Neuroscience - Current Perspectives And Approaches Vivek Misra
Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by neural circuits in the brain.
In current slides, I tried to cover History, Basic Concepts and Research Methods currently used in cognitive neuroscience research.
The document provides a historical overview of neuroscience from prehistory to modern times. It discusses key developments such as the realization that the brain, not the heart, is the center of intelligence and memory (Ancient Greece). Later studies localized brain functions and identified the neuron as the basic functional unit of the nervous system (19th century). Contemporary neuroscience examines the brain at molecular, cellular, systems and behavioral levels to understand nervous system disorders and the relationship between brain activity and the mind.
The brain is formed of three main areas - the brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. The brain stem controls autonomic functions and sensory/motor pathways. The cerebellum is responsible for balance, coordination, and cognitive functions. The cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres, with different functions localized to specific lobes and areas.
How our brain functions when we are aged? In the fast changing world, many a times we heard people saying i am 60 years old and i cannot learn new skills. Is there any truth in the statement. Who is the best consultant for 'downsizing' if we do not use our resouces-It is brain by process.
The brain stem sits at the base of the brain and controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It has three main parts - the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain controls vision and hearing, the pons helps with sleep and attention, and the medulla controls automatic functions like breathing and digestion. Injuries to the brain stem can impact functions like breathing, swallowing, balance, and more. The document describes two cases - a woman who became quadriplegic at age 13 from a brain stem injury and a man who was injured in a car accident and had limited mobility until receiving stem cell treatment.
The human brain is divided into three main parts - the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is responsible for higher functions like thinking and reasoning. It is divided into four lobes - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance while the brain stem regulates basic functions vital for survival like breathing. The brain is protected by meninges and ventricles circulate cerebrospinal fluid. Key structures include the limbic system for emotions and memory and the hypothalamus which regulates hormones and homeostasis.
Anatomy of Human Brain Presented by Dr Arman MD (Resident) Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka, Bangladesh. reference taken from latest book & journal.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system, including:
1) The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS; brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (PNS; connects to CNS).
2) The brain is divided into three parts - forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain - each with different functions like planning, movement, vision, hearing.
3) Neurons are the basic working units and communicate via electrical and chemical signals across synapses.
4) The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions like breathing, digestion.
The brain is the central organ of the nervous system located in the cranium. It controls and regulates functions of the human body through complex processes. The brain is divided into three main parts - the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain includes the thalamus, cerebrum, and limbic system. The cerebrum is the largest part and controls functions like movement, reasoning, and learning. Neurotransmission allows neurons to communicate via neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, GABA, and serotonin that are released at synapses. Neurotransmitters can be excitatory, stimulating the brain, or inhibitory, balancing excessive stimulation.
The document discusses the nervous system and coordination in animals. It describes how the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves). Neurons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical waves via axons and synapses. Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that involve reflex arcs through sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The size of nervous systems varies greatly across species from a few hundred cells in worms to over 100 billion cells in humans. Malfunctions can occur due to various genetic, physical, or age-related causes and are studied in neurology.
The document discusses the structure and function of the human brain. It is divided into several main sections: the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem which make up the three main parts of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest part and is divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal) which each control different functions. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, while the brainstem performs vital automatic functions. The left and right hemispheres each control the opposite side of the body and have slightly different functions. The limbic system controls emotions, and the pituitary gland regulates hormones.
The document provides information about the structure and functions of the brain and nervous system. It discusses that the brain resembles a computer but is capable of more complex functions like emotion and creativity. It describes the main parts of the brain like the cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and how they work together with the spinal cord and nervous system. The brain requires a constant blood supply and cerebrospinal fluid to function properly. Specific yoga practices like asanas and pranayama are recommended.
This document provides an anatomical diagram of the major lobes and structures of the human brain. It outlines the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. It also labels the cerebellum, brain stem including the pons and medulla oblongata, and spinal cord.
The document provides an overview of the main anatomical divisions and structures of the human brain. It discusses that the brain can be divided into three main divisions - the forebrain (cerebrum), midbrain, and hindbrain. The cerebrum is the largest part and can be further divided into four lobes. The brain stem connects the forebrain and hindbrain and contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The cerebellum is located beneath the tentorium cerebelli and coordinates muscle movements and balance.
the nervous system is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.
The document describes the major anatomical reference points and divisions of the nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. Within the central nervous system, it outlines the main regions including the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and covers the structures and functions of areas like the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and cerebellum.
The document summarizes different parts of the brain stem including the thalamus, hypothalamus, medulla, pons, and cerebellum. It discusses the location and functions of each part, as well as some related diseases and effects of brain damage. Key functions covered include relaying sensory information, regulating autonomic functions like breathing and heart rate, controlling movement, and maintaining homeostasis.
Introduction to central nervous system – structure,.pptxPavithra L N
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is protected by the skull and spinal cord by the vertebrae. The brain controls bodily functions through different regions like the cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and body. The central nervous system contains gray matter with neurons and white matter with axons and glial cells that support neurons.
The nervous system is composed of specialized nerve cells called neurons that communicate with each other and other body cells. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system which links the body to the CNS via spinal and cranial nerves. The CNS contains millions of neurons and performs functions like processing sensory input and coordinating motor output. Diseases of the CNS can affect the brain or spinal cord and cause issues with behaviors and motor control. Some examples are encephalitis, meningitis, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's.
Review of Nervous System, Unconsciousness, and CVA. The Nursing Core FunctionsAyinla Kazeem
This presentation was made at several sessions of Mandatory Continuing Professional Development Programme for Nigerian Nurses in Kwara State, and have undergone series of editing till date. While still working on the final editing to totally conform with global standard of practice, I deemed it necessary to share it in this forum.
The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind and consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons and glial cells that support and protect neurons. Glial cells in the CNS include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, and radial glia. The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and body and contains circuits that control reflexes. The CNS is made up of gray matter containing neurons and white matter containing axons and glial cells.
This chapter discusses the biological basis of behavior, focusing on the nervous system and endocrine system. It describes how neurons communicate via electrical and chemical signals to coordinate the body's functions. Specific areas of the brain like the limbic system and cerebral cortex each have roles in functions like memory, emotion, language, and movement. Genes and evolution also influence behavior, as seen through studies in behavior genetics and evolutionary psychology.
This document provides an overview of the human nervous system, including:
- The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes nerves connecting the CNS to muscles and sensory organs.
- The nervous system has sensory, integrative, and motor functions. Sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to the CNS. The CNS integrates these signals and directs motor neurons to respond.
- Neurons are the basic functional units and come in various types. They are supported by glial cells like oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. The CNS is protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
The document provides an overview of neurophysiology and the structure and function of the nervous system. It describes the development of the central nervous system from the neural tube, and defines the major subdivisions of the brain and spinal cord. It also discusses the types of neurons and glial cells, their roles, and the protective mechanisms of the central nervous system like the meninges and blood-brain barrier.
The document discusses various topics related to the central nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, and brain stem. It provides information on the following:
- The brain is the most complex organ containing billions of neurons.
- The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The medulla and pons contain nuclei that relay signals and control autonomic functions. The midbrain is involved in eye movement, hearing, and posture.
- The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance by comparing motor input and output and relaying adjustments to the cortex through the red nucleus.
- Other parts of the central nervous system discussed include the hypothalamus, th
The document describes the structure and function of the human nervous system. It is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS receives and integrates sensory information and coordinates voluntary and involuntary motor responses. The PNS connects the CNS to sensory receptors and effector organs throughout the body. Key components include the brain, spinal cord, neurons, and over 30 pairs of cranial and spinal nerves.
The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The (CNS) is the major division, and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal canal contains the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity contains the brain.
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system contains neurons, neuroglial cells, and neurotransmitters that communicate messages between neurons. The brain is divided into the cerebrum, brain stem, and cerebellum. The cerebrum contains the left and right hemispheres, thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia. The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. The cerebellum coordinates movement. The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and cerebrospinal fluid circulates through the ventricular system. Blood flows to the brain through internal carotid and vertebral arteries.
The document provides an overview of the central nervous system. It discusses the main components and functions of the CNS, including the brain stem, cerebellum, basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. It also covers topics like neuron types, neuroglia, CSF circulation, spinal cord levels, lower and higher brain functions, speech pathways, and neurodegenerative diseases. The central topics covered are the structure and functions of the key parts of the CNS and their roles in motor control, sensory processing, memory, emotion and other higher cognitive functions.
The nervous system is composed of neurons that transmit signals throughout the body via electrical and chemical signals. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes all other neurons. Sensory neurons collect information and transmit it to the central nervous system, while motor neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to tissues. The brain controls homeostasis and interprets sensory information. It is composed of regions like the cerebrum, brainstem, and cerebellum. The peripheral nervous system includes sensory receptors, motor neurons, and the autonomic nervous system. Neurons transmit signals via action potentials generated by ion flow across membranes. Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons. Sensory systems allow the detection of stimuli
In humans and other higher animals, the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) collectively form the whole nervous system. The CNS, which serves as the body's control center, includes the spinal cord and the brain. The PNS, a nerve network, links the CNS to various bodily systems.
Hi Guys, this PPT covers Nervous System for class 10th, Tamil Nadu state board.
To access similar content click the Blogger link below:
https://konjampadipoma.blogspot.com/
The document provides information about the central nervous system. It discusses that the CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is responsible for integrating sensory information and coordinating body functions, while the spinal cord acts as a channel between the brain and body. The four major parts of the brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest part and is divided into four lobes that control different functions.
The document provides an overview of the human nervous system. It discusses the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It describes the major divisions and parts of the brain, including the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem. It also discusses neurons, glial cells, cranial and spinal nerves, and the functions of different areas of the brain like the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.
Cognitive neuroscience links the brain and nervous system to cognition and behavior. The brain controls thoughts, emotions, and motivations. Neurons transmit signals through the nervous system and are the basic building blocks of the brain. Synapses are connections between neurons that are important for cognition, learning, and memory. Signal transmission occurs through the release and detection of neurotransmitters. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Key areas of the forebrain include the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus which are involved in various cognitive and regulatory functions. Common brain disorders include stroke, which occurs when blood flow to the brain is disrupted, and
The document provides information about the nervous system and its components. It discusses the basic structure and function of neurons. It describes the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into three main parts - the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla. During development, the central nervous system originates from the neural plate and neural tube. The document also discusses various parts of the brain like the rhombencephalon, mesencephalon, diencephalon and telencephalon and their functions.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the brain. It describes the main parts of the brain as the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest part and is divided into four lobes that control functions like movement, sensation, vision, and language. The cerebellum aids in movement coordination and balance. The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla, and controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. Other parts discussed include the thalamus and hypothalamus, which regulate sensation and autonomic body processes respectively.
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This journal article review summarizes a research article that evaluated patient referral patterns within the primary healthcare system in Ethiopia. The study found that 28% of 796 patients sought prior care before arriving at their current facility, while only 9.9% were formally referred. Many patients bypassed lower levels of care to access hospital services directly. This suggests weaknesses in the referral system that could be addressed through health education programs and strengthening community-based services. The review discusses limitations of the study and opportunities for future research on clinical appropriateness and improving utilization of primary healthcare facilities in Ethiopia.
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1. BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF
BEHAVIOUR AND OVERVIEW OF
COMMON NEUROLOGICAL
DISORDERS
UNDER THE JOINT GUIDANCE OF
DR. DIPANJAN BHATTACHARJEE AND MS. POOJA AUDHYA
PRESENTING BY
FATHIMA HASANATH, VIDHI MANDLOI AND ANANDU KS
2. CONTENTS
1) Brain, its structure and functions, neurons, neural
transmissions, synaptic transmission-overview.
2) Delirium, Dementia, Organic Psychosis, epilepsy, etc.-
historical view, classification, diagnostic features and
comorbidity
3) Rehabilitation: Psychosocial and vocational.
4. HUMAN BRAIN
Human brain is an amazing three pound organ that controls all functions of
the body, interprets information from the outside world, and embodies the
essence of the mind and soul.
It is protected within the skull, composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum and
brain stem.
The human brain is one of the most complex systems on earth.
The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system, which
alongside the peripheral nervous system is responsible for regulating all bodily
functions.
6. STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
The human brain is split up into three major layers: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.
The hindbrain is the well-protected central core of the brain. It includes the
cerebellum, reticular formation, and brain stem, which are responsible
for some of the most basic autonomic functions of life, such as breathing
and movement. The brain stem contains the pons and medulla
oblongata.
The midbrain makes up part of the brain stem. It is located between the
hindbrain and forebrain. All sensory and motor information that travels
between the forebrain and the spinal cord passes through the midbrain,
making it a relay station for the central nervous system.
7. The forebrain is the most anterior division of the developing vertebrate
brain, containing the most complex networks in the central nervous
system.
The forebrain has two major divisions: the diencephalon and the
telencephalon. The diencephalon is lower, containing the thalamus and
hypothalamus (which together form the limbic system);
the telencephalon is on top of the diencephalon and contains the
cerebrum, the home of the highest-level cognitive processing in the
brain.
It is the large and complicated forebrain that distinguishes the human
brain from other vertebrate brains.
9. CEREBRAL CORTEX
In humans, Cerebrum comprising the cerebral cortex and several subcortical
structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb.
The cerebrum is composed of Gray and white matter. Gray matter is the mass of
all the cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses of neurons interlaced with one
another, while white matter consists of the long, myelin-coated axons of those
neurons connecting masses of Gray matter to each other.
The cerebral cortex, the largest part of the brain, is the ultimate control and
information-processing centre in the brain.
The grey, folded, outermost layer of the cerebrum responsible for higher brain
processes such as sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, reasoning,
and memory.
10. The cerebrum is divided into two halves; the right and left
hemispheres.
They are joined by a bundle of fibres called corpus callosum that
transmits messages from one side to the other.
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
In general, the left hemisphere controls speech, comprehension,
arithmetic and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity,
spatial ability, artistic and musical skills.
The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92
% of people.
12. The cortex is made of layers of neurons with many inputs.
these cortical neurons function like mini microprocessors or
logic gates. It contains glial cells, which guide neural
connections, provide nutrients and myelin to neurons, and
absorb extra ions and neurotransmitters.
The cortex is wrinkly in appearance. The “valleys” of the
wrinkles are called sulci (or sometimes, fissures); the “peaks”
between wrinkles are called gyri. One notable sulcus is the
central sulcus, or the wrinkle dividing the parietal lobe from
the frontal lobe.
The cerebral hemispheres have distinct fissures which
divide the brain into lobes. Each hemisphere has 4 lobes;
frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital.
14. NEURONS
A neuron can be defined as a nerve cell. The neuron is often thought of as the "building
block" of the nervous system.
Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, the cells responsible
for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our
muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in between.
The human neural system is divided into two parts :
(i) the central neural system (CNS)
(ii) the peripheral neural system (PNS)
The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information processing and
control. The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain and
spinal cord).
18. NEURONS FUNCTION
Sensory neurons carry messages from
the "outside world", the
sensory receptors, to
the spinal cord
and brain
Motor neurons carry the messages to
the "outside
world“.
Interneurons typically found in
integrative areas of the
CNS, are limited to a
single brain area.
NEURONS CHARECTARISTICS
Unipolar that only have one
projection that includes both
the dendrite and axon.
Bipolar There are also neurons that
have only one dendritic
projection
Multipolar the "typical" neuron has
multiple dendritic
projections and one axon
from the soma.
19. TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES
Neurotransmission (or synaptic transmission) is communication between
neurons as accomplished by the movement of chemicals or electrical
signals across a synapse.
For any interneuron, its function is to receive INPUT "information" from other
neurons through synapses, to process that information, then to send
"information" as OUTPUT to other neurons through synapses.
A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junctions
called synapses. The membranes of the pre- and post-synaptic neurons are
separated by a fluid-filled space called synaptic cleft.
20. Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the transmission of
impulses at these synapses. The axon terminals contain vesicles filled with
these neurotransmitters.
When an impulse (action potential) arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the
movement of the synaptic vesicles towards the membrane where they fuse with
the plasma membrane and release their neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft.
The released neurotransmitters bind to their specific receptors, present on the
post-synaptic membrane. This binding opens ion channels allowing the entry of
ions which can generate a new potential in the post-synaptic neuron.
21. Terminal buttons of a neuron (axon terminals) contain the chemical
messengers, neurotransmitters, chemical messengers are responsible for
communication among neurons.
22. DEMENTIA
Dementia refers to a disease process marked by progressive cognitive
impairment in clear consciousness.
Dementia involves multiple cognitive domains and cognitive deficits cause
significant impairment in social and occupational functioning.
Occurs in any age, more commonly in elderly age (Above 65 years).
The dissorder can be progressive or static; permanent or reversible.
Approximately 15% of people with dementia have reversible illness if
treatment initiated before irreversible damage takes place.
23. History of dementia;
The term dementia derives from the Latin root demens, which means
being out of one’s mind.
Dementia was first described in a book about mental illness in 1894, Dr.
Alois Alzheimer, a german neuropathologist who has a particular interest in
“nervous disorders” described changes in the brain caused by vascular
disease ( now known as vascular dementia).
25. CLASSIFICATION
International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 10.
F00 - F03
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
Evidence of a decline in both memory and thinking which is sufficient to
impair social activities.
The impairment of memory typically affects the registration, storage, and
retrievel of new information, but previously learned familiar material may
also be lost.
Impairement in of thinking and reasoning capacity, and a reduction in the
flow of ideas.
The processing of incoming information is impaired and to shift focus of
attention from one topic to another.
The above mentioned symtoms and impairments should have been evident
for at least 6 months.
26. DEMENTIA IN ALZHEIMER’S
DISEASE.
F00
Alzheimer’s disease is a primary degenerative cerebral disease.It is usually
insidious onset and develops slowly but steadily over a period of years (2-3
years).
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
(a) Presence of a dementia as described above.
(b)Insidious onset with slow deterioration. While the onset usually seems
difficult to pinpoint in time, realization by others that the defects exist may
come suddenly. An apparent plateau may occur in the progression.
27. (c) Absence of clinical evidence, or findings from special investigations, to
suggest that the mental state may be due to other systemic or brain
disease which caninduce a dementia (e.g. hypothyroidism,
hypercalcaemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, niacin deficiency,
neurosyphilis, normal pressure hydrocephalus, or subdural
haematoma).
(d) Absence of a sudden, apoplectic onset, or of neurological signs of
focal damagesuch as hemiparesis, sensory loss, visual field defects, and
incoordinationoccurring early in the illness (although these phenomena may
be superimposedlater).
28. F00.0 Dementia in Alzheimer’s disease with early onset.
F00.1 Dementia in Alzheimer's disease with late onset
F00.2 Dementia in Alzheimer's disease, atypical or mixed type
F00.9 Dementia in Alzheimer's disease, unspecified
29. F01 Vascular dementia
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
The diagnosis presupposes the presence of a dementia as described
above.
Impairment of cognitive function is commonly uneven, so that there may be
memory loss, intellectual impairment, and focal neurological signs.
Insight and judgement may be relatively well preserved.
An abrupt onset or a stepwise deterioration, as well as the presence of
focal neurological signs and symptoms
30. Associated features are: hypertension, carotid bruit, emotional lability with
transient depressive mood, weeping or explosive laughter, and transient
episodes of clouded consciousness or delirium, often provoked by further
infarction. Personality is believed to be relatively well preserved, but
personality changes may be evident in a proportion of cases with apathy,
disinhibition, or accentuation of previous traits such as egocentricity, paranoid
attitudes, or irritability.
31. F01.0 Vascular dementia of acute onset
Usually develops rapidly after a succession of strokes from cerebrovascular
thrombosis, embolism, or haemorrhage, In rare cases, a single large
infarction may be the cause.
F01.1 Multi-infarct dementia
This is more gradual in onset than the acute form, following a number of
minor ischaemic episodes which produce an accumulation of infarcts in the
cerebral parenchyma.
F01.2 Subcortical vascular dementia
There may be a history of hypertension and foci of ischaemic destruction in
the deep white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, which can be suspected
on clinical grounds and demonstrated on computerized axial tomography
scans.
32. F01.3 Mixed cortical and subcortical vascular dementia
Mixed cortical and subcortical components of the vascular dementia may be
suspected from the clinical features, the results of investigations (including
autopsy), or both.
F01.8 Other vascular dementia
F01.9 Vascular dementia, unspecified
33. F02 Dementia in other diseases
classified elsewhere
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
Presence of a dementia as described above; presence of features
characteristic of one of the specified syndromes, as set out in the following
categories.
Onset may be at any time in life, though rarely in old age.
34. F02.0 Dementia in Pick's disease
A progressive dementia, commencing in middle life (usually between 50 and
60 years), characterized by slowly progressing changes of character and
social deterioration, followed by impairment of intellect, memory, and
language functions, with apathy, euphoria, and (occasionally) extrapyramidal
phenomena.
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
(a) a progressive dementia;
(b) a predominance of frontal lobe features with euphoria, emotional blunting,
and coarsening of social behaviour, disinhibition, and either apathy or
restlessness;
(c) behavioural manifestations, which commonly precede frank memory
impairment.
35. F02.1 Dementia in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
A progressive dementia with extensive neurological signs, due to specific
neuropathological changes (subacute spongiform encephalopathy) that are
presumed to be caused by a transmissible agent. Onset is usually in middle
or later life, typically in the fifth decade, but may be at any adult age. The
course is subacute,leading to death within 1-2 years.
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease should be suspected in all cases of a dementia that
progresses fairly rapidly over months to 1 or 2 years and that is accompanied
or followed by multiple neurological symptoms. In some cases, such as the
so-called amyotrophic form, the neurological signs may precede the onset of
the dementia.
36. There is usually a progressive spastic paralysis of the limbs, accompanied by
extrapyramidal signs with tremor, rigidity, and choreoathetoid movements.
Other variants may include ataxia, visual failure, or muscle fibrillation and
atrophy of the upper motor neuron type. The triad consisting of
- rapidly progressing, devastating dementia,
- pyramidal and extrapyramidal disease with myoclonus, and
- a characteristic (triphasic) electroencephalogram is thought to be highly
suggestive of this disease.
37. F02.2 Dementia in Huntington's disease
A dementia occurring as part of a widespread degeneration of the brain. In a
proportion of cases, the earliest symptoms may be depression, anxiety, or
frank paranoid illness, accompanied by a personality change. Progression is
slow, leading to death usually within 10 to 15 years.
F02.3 Dementia in Parkinson's disease
DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
Dementia developing in an individual with advanced, usually severe,
Parkinson's disease.
F02.4 Dementia in human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] disease
F02.8 Dementia in other specified diseases classified elsewhere
F03 Unspecified dementia
F1x.73 Residual and late-onset psychotic disorder, Dementia
38. Treatments
Pharmocology
Cholinesterase inhibitors. These medications — including donepezil (Aricept),
rivastigmine (Exelon) and galantamine (Razadyne) — work by boosting levels of a
chemical messenger involved in memory and judgment.
Side effects can include nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Other possible side effects
include slowed heart rate, fainting and sleep disturbances.
Memantine. Memantine (Namenda) works by regulating the activity of glutamate,
another chemical messenger involved in brain functions, such as learning and
memory. In some cases, memantine is prescribed with a cholinesterase inhibitor.
A common side effect of memantine is dizziness.
Benzodiazepine for insomnia and anxiety.
Anti depression and anti psychotic drugs for delusion and hallucination.
Side effects: paradoxical exitement, confusion, and increased sedation.
39. Therapies
Several dementia symptoms and behavior problems might be treated initially
using nondrug approaches, such as:
Occupational therapy. An occupational therapist can show you how to
make your home safer and teach coping behaviors. The purpose is to
prevent accidents, such as falls; manage behavior and prepare you for the
dementia progression.
Modifying the environment. Reducing clutter and noise can make it easier
for someone with dementia to focus and function. You might need to hide
objects that can threaten safety, such as knives and car keys. Monitoring
systems can alert you if the person with dementia wanders.
Simplifying tasks. Break tasks into easier steps and focus on success, not
failure. Structure and routine also help reduce confusion in people with
dementia.
40. Lifestyle and home remedies
Dementia symptoms and behavior problems will progress over time.
Caregivers and care partners might try the following suggestions:
Enhance communication. maintain eye contact. Speak slowly in simple
sentences, and don't rush the response. Present one idea or instruction at
a time. Use gestures and cues, such as pointing to objects.
Encourage exercise. The main benefits of exercise in people with
dementia include improved strength, balance and cardiovascular health.
Exercise might also help with symptoms such as restlessness. There is
growing evidence that exercise also protects the brain from dementia,
especially when combined with a healthy diet and treatment for risk factors
for cardiovascular disease.
Activity schedule
Sleep hygiene
Keep a calender
41. DELIRIUM
Delirium is charecterised by an acute decline in both the level of consciousness
and cognition with particular impairement in attention.
It is a serious disturbance in mental abilities that results in confused thinking and
reduced awareness of environment. The start od delirium is usually rapid - within a
hours or a few days.
An etiologically nonspecific syndrome characterized by concurrent disturbances of
consciousness and attention, perception, thinking, memory, psychomotor
behaviour, emotion, and the sleep-wake cycle. It may occur at any age but is most
common after the age of 60 years. The delirious state is transient and of fluctuating
intensity; most cases recover within 4 weeks or less. However, delirium lasting,
with fluctuations, for up to 6 months is not uncommon
42. DIAGNOSIS GUIDELINES
(a) impairment of consciousness and attention (on a continuum from
clouding to coma; reduced ability to direct, focus, sustain, and shift
attention);
(b) global disturbance of cognition (perceptual distortions, illusions and
hallucinations - most often visual; impairment of abstract thinking and
comprehension, with or without transient delusions, but typically with
some degree of incoherence; impairment of immediate recall and of
recent memory but with relatively intact remote memory; disorientation for
time as well as, in more severe cases, for place and person);
(c) psychomotor disturbances (hypo- or hyperactivity and unpredictable
shifts from one to the other; increased reaction time; increased or decreased
flow of speech; enhanced startle reaction);
43. (d) disturbance of the sleep-wake cycle (insomnia or, in severe cases, total
sleep loss or reversal of the sleep-wake cycle; daytime drowsiness;
nocturnal worsening of symptoms; disturbing dreams or nightmares, which
may continue as hallucinations after awakening);
(e) emotional disturbances, e.g. depression, anxiety or fear, irritability,
euphoria, apathy, or wondering perplexity.
The onset is usually rapid, the course diurnally fluctuating, and the total
duration of the condition less than 6 months
44. F05.0 Delirium, not superimposed on dementia, so described
F05.1 Delirium, superimposed on dementia
F05.8 Other delirium
F05.9 Delirium, unspecified
F1x.03 Mental and behavioural disorders due to psychoactive substance
use, acute intoxication with delirium.
F1x.4 Mental and behavioural disorders due to psychoactive substance
use, withdrawl state with delirium
45. Treatments
The first goal of treatment for delirium is to address any underlying causes or
triggers — for example, by stopping use of a particular medication,
addressing metabolic imbalances or treating an infection. Treatment then
focuses on creating the best environment for healing the body and calming
the brain.
Supportive care
Protecting the airway
Providing fluids and nutrition
Assisting with movement
Treating pain
Addressing incontinence
Avoiding use of physical restraints and bladder tubes
Avoiding changes in surroundings and caregivers when possible
Encouraging the involvement of family members or familiar people
46. Pharmocological treatment
Antipsychotics are the most widely used drugs for the treatment of delirium-
related agitation but can have marked adverse effects.
Antipsychotics; Haloperidol, Risperidone, Olanzapine, clozapine,
Quetiapine
Side effects can occur; Extrapyramidal syndrome, prolonged QT interval.
Benzodiazepines
Side effects can occur; Paradoxical excitation, respiratory depression,
excessive sedation, confusion.
47. REFERENCES
https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-
brain#:~:text=The%20brain%20is%20a%20complex,central%20nervous%20system%2C%20or%20CNS.
Fong, T. G., Tulebaev, S. R., & Inouye, S. K. (2009). Delirium in elderly adults: Diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Nature
Reviews. Neurology, 5(4), 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2009.24
Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Sommerlad, A., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Brayne, C., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J.,
Cooper, C., Costafreda, S. G., Dias, A., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Kivimäki, M., Larson, E. B., Ogunniyi,
A., … Mukadam, N. (2020). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission. The Lancet,
396(10248), 413–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30367-6
Mohan, A. (2014). Neural Control and Coordination.
Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Ruiz, P. (2015). Kaplan & Sadock's synopsis of psychiatry: Behavioral sciences/clinical
psychiatry (Eleventh edition.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer.
Stufflebeam, R. (2008). Neurons, synapses, action potentials, and neurotransmission. Consortium on Cognitive Science
Instruction.
49. Mental health is a state of well-being in which a person realizes his/her own
abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and
fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his/her community.
Mental health has a low priority on the development agenda and for society in
general. There is a lack of knowledge about mental health issues, with
widespread stigma, prejudice and discrimination.
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities highlights that
persons with disabilities include those who have “mental impairments” and
emphasizes the need to: (i) ensure their full and equal enjoyment of all human
rights and fundamental freedoms; and (ii) promote their participation in civil,
political, economic, social and cultural spheres with equal opportunities.
50. DEFINITION
Article 26, Habilitation and Rehabilitation, of the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) calls
for:“… appropriate measures, including through peer support, to enable
persons with disabilities to attain and maintain their maximum
independence, full physical, mental, social and vocational ability, and
full inclusion and participation in all aspects of life”.
This Report of WHO on rehabilitation defines rehabilitation as “a set of
measures that assist individuals who experience, or are likely to
experience, disability to achieve and maintain optimal functioning in
interaction with their environments”.
51. The goal - is to help people with these disabling disorders develop
the emotional, social and intellectual skills needed to live, learn and
work in their homes and community.
Rehabilitation comprises two sets of intervention strategies. The
first strategy is individual-centred and aims at developing the
person’s skills in interacting with the environment. The second
strategy is directed towards identifying and developing the
environmental resources to maximize their functioning in the
community. Most people will need a combination of both these
components for achieving full potential.
Rehabilitation involves closing the gap between the individual’s
current skills and those needed for improved functioning.
52. ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF
REHABILITATION
Strategies must be tailored to the individual and family needs.
Restoration of hope.
Improve on existing strengths and abilities.
Plans should be context specific.
Environmental supports.
Collaborative approach.
Balance skill development and support.
53. GOALS OF REHABILITATION
Prevention of the loss of function
Slowing the rate of loss of function
Improvement or restoration of function
Compensation for lost function
Maintenance of current function.
Rehabilitation can be provided in a range of settings including acute care
hospitals, specialized rehabilitation wards, hospitals or centres, nursing
homes, respite care centres, institutions, hospices, prisons, residential
educational institutions, military residential settings, or single multi-professional
practices. Longer-term rehabilitation may be provided within community
settings and facilities such as primary health care centres, rehabilitation
centres, schools, work places or homes.
54. PROCESS OF REHABILITATION
Identify problems
and needs
Relate problems to
modifiable and
limiting factors
Define target problems and
target mediators, select
appropriate measures.
Plan, implement and
coordinate
interventions
Assess effects
55. ROLE OF PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL
WORKER
Psychosocial management of human problems and to improve the
psychosocial functioning of the individual.
Restoration of impaired capacities
Provision of individual and social resources.
Prevention of social dysfunction.
Detailed assessment of the person and the care givers for
providing total rehabilitation by using eclectic approach.
56. PSYCHOSOCIAL REHABILITATION
Psychosocial rehabilitation (PSR) is a term used to describe treatments that aim to
restore the patient’s ability to function independently in the community. It not only
includes the medical and psychosocial treatment but also include ways to improve
social interactions, to promote independent living, and to encourage vocational
performance.
57. APPROACHES
PSR is based on the key idea that people are motivated to achieve
independence and are capable of adapting in order to achieve their goals.
The process is highly individualized, person-centred, and collaborative.
Some specific areas that psychosocial rehabilitation might address include
skills training and experiences designed to boost:
• Resilience and mental toughness
• Problem-solving
• Self-esteem
• Social skills
• Stress management
58. PSR is holistic: strives to address areas of the person’s life that contribute to
overall mental and physical well-being.
PSR is person-centred: Each client’s goals are individualized based upon
their specific needs or concerns.
Areas of Concern: Key domains addressed through psychosocial rehab
include basic living skills, family relationships, peer and social relationships,
employment, education, recreation, health, and wellness.
Effectiveness of PSR: A) It can improve life skills, B) can benefit overall
wellness, C) may help with serious psychiatric conditions.
59. PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
REHABILITATION
All people have potential that can be developed.
People have a right to self-determination.
The emphasis is on the individual's strengths rather than their symptoms.
Each person's needs are different.
Professional services should be committed and take place in as
normalized an environment as possible.
There is a focus on a social model of care (as opposed to a medical
model).
It is cantered on the present rather than fixated on the past.
60. Those who might benefit from PSR
include:
People who need help restoring their full functioning after treatment
Those who are disabled and need ongoing assistance in multiple life
domains
Individuals who, while functional, feel that they need a boost of support
and assistance
People who lack the supportive environment and resources they need to
achieve full functioning
Rehabilitation can help them learn basic skills that will allow them to
function and cope with their condition.
61. VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION
Many patients who are engaged in meaningful activities, report a reduction in
symptomatology, and an enhanced sense of mastery over both ambient stress
and stressful life events.
This redefinition of work therapy from passive "make work" approach to "an
active participatory" work restoration approach has resulted not only in a more
comprehensive system of evaluation, training and guidance but also in an
extensive array of vocational training and placement options.
The two main paradigms currently dominating the practice of vocational
rehabilitation are known as
1. Train and Place
2. Place and Train
62. OBJECTIVES
Vocational evaluation and adjustment of person with
disabilities.
Assessment of medical, psychological, rehabilitation needs.
Assist in developing rehabilitation plans.
Distribution centres for various schemes
(scholarship/aids/appliances).
Make referral to financing institution for funding self-
employment ventures.
64. Vocational evaluation: defined as a comprehensive assessment that utilizes a variety of tools,
including paper and pencil tests, structured interviews and real or simulated work. It may use
work samples, situation assessment and on the job evaluations.
Employment readiness: it includes 1)medical stability, 2)stamina and endurance, 3)
psychosocial factors such as individual support systems, 4)availability of adequate attendant
care, 5) transportation, 6)psychological motivation.
Job seeking and skill training: it includes assist in developing job seeking skill training
(follow-up on job leads, resume writing, application completion, and interviewing skills) through
coaching, role playing and video taping.
Job analysis: the factors that must be analysed are work environment, job tasks, productivity
(work atmosphere and cognitive demands).
Job accommodation: requesting for accommodation
Job follow up: ensure a successful outcome for both the individual and the employer.
65. REFERENCES
Sekar, K., Parthasarathy, R., & Muralidhar, D., (2011), Handbook of
Psychiatric Social Work, Banglore:NIMHANS, Pp- 175-88.
https://nimhans.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/6.-Psychosocial-
Rehabilitation-Current-Trends_295-305.pdf
https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/chapter4.pdf
https://www.verywellmind.com/psychosocial-rehabilitation-4589796
https://www.who.int/disabilities/care/rehabilitation_guidelines_concept.pdf