The document summarizes research on learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It discusses classical and operant conditioning experiments by Pavlov and others. It describes studies showing memory is not localized to specific brain areas, and the hippocampus is important for forming new long-term memories. Different types of amnesia result from damage to different brain regions like the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and other physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie learning and memory at the synaptic level.
Chapter 13: The Biology of Learning & MemoryAlex Holub
The document discusses several topics related to biology of learning and memory including:
1. Classical and operant conditioning and how they relate to forming memories through reinforcement and punishment.
2. Theories of localized representations of memory in the brain and types of both short-term and long-term memory.
3. Diseases and disorders that cause memory loss such as amnesia, Korsakoff's syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease.
4. Cellular mechanisms in the brain that support information storage, including Hebbian synapses, habituation, sensitization, and long-term potentiation/depression.
This document discusses the anatomy and functions of the frontal lobe. It begins with the neuroanatomy of the frontal lobe, describing its sulci, fissures and gyri. It then covers the prefrontal cortex in more detail, describing its functional areas including the dorsolateral, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex. The document also discusses the motor cortex, its primary, premotor and supplementary areas. It covers tests used to assess frontal lobe functions and describes frontal lobe syndromes and its involvement in psychiatric illnesses and epilepsy.
The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of neurons located in the medial temporal lobe that plays a key role in processing emotions like fear and anger. It detects threatening stimuli and prepares the body's defense response. The amygdala also helps store emotional memories to recognize threats in the future. It is involved in sexual arousal and aggression levels. A case study of a woman with bilateral amygdala damage showed an inability to experience fear while other emotions remained intact, demonstrating the amygdala's central role in processing fear.
This document provides an overview of the neurobiology of emotions. It discusses the history of theories of emotion, key brain structures involved in emotion regulation like the limbic system and its components, and functional circuits in the brain that mediate emotional responses. Specific neurotransmitter systems and how hormones like cortisol are involved in emotions like depression are also summarized. The limbic system, including structures like the amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus play important roles in emotional processing and expression. Circuits like the Papez circuit are involved in emotional memory and learning.
This document summarizes key concepts regarding physiology of memory and learning. It defines different types of memory including short-term memory, long-term memory, explicit memory, implicit memory, and different memory systems in the brain. It also discusses different stages of memory processing and the anatomical basis of memory, including the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala and different pathways. Long-term potentiation and its properties and role in memory formation are described. Different types of learning like classical conditioning, operant conditioning and various forms of implicit learning are also summarized.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
Neuropsychology Presentation for Psych 220Madison Bathke
The document discusses five important aspects of neuropsychology:
1) Everything psychological originates from thoughts in the brain in response to sensory input.
2) Neurons transmit messages through action potentials and synaptic transmission.
3) The brainstem controls arousal, movement, breathing, and heart rate. The limbic system controls emotions and drives.
4) The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes controlling movement, senses, vision, and language. The hemispheres control opposite sides of the body.
5) The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the body, and is divided into the autonomic and somatic systems. The central nervous system is the brain and spinal cord.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting strengthening of synapses based on timing of neural activity. It is believed to be the cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory. LTP occurs when presynaptic activation repeatedly followed by postsynaptic spiking. This coincident activity causes calcium influx and initiates changes that strengthen synaptic connections. [END SUMMARY]
The document discusses learning and memory. It explains that learning involves how experience changes the brain, while memory involves how these changes are stored and retrieved. It describes the different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term) and where memories are stored in the brain. The case of patient H.M., who had medial temporal lobe removal, demonstrated the role of these areas in forming new memories and provided evidence for separate short-term and long-term memory systems. Concussions can cause retrograde and anterograde amnesia, providing evidence that memories are consolidated over time.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. Memory involves encoding, storing, and later retrieving knowledge about the world. There are two main types of memory: explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (associative, classical, and non-associative). Different forms of learning and memory involve different brain regions. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus is important for declarative memory formation and involves strengthening of synapses through high-frequency stimulation and calcium-dependent processes.
The document discusses the connection between the mind and body. It explains that thoughts and feelings can influence physical health and behavior, and physical states can also impact mental health and cognition. It then focuses on the brain and nervous system, describing neurons, neurotransmitters, and how neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin are involved in functions like movement, mood, and mental illnesses. The central and peripheral nervous systems are outlined, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions that work to activate and relax the body.
This document discusses physiology of memory and learning. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience, while memory is the ability to recall past events. There are two main types of learning - associative and non-associative. Associative learning involves associating stimuli, like in classical and operant conditioning. Non-associative learning does not require association of stimuli, and includes habituation and sensitization. Memory is classified into sensory, short-term, long-term and permanent memory based on duration. The hippocampus and surrounding areas are involved in consolidating memories by converting them from short-term to long-term storage through long-term potentiation.
The document discusses executive functions and provides definitions from various studies. It describes executive functions as a set of cognitive processes that regulate other cognitive processes such as planning, working memory, attention, problem solving and inhibition. Executive functions are controlled by the frontal lobes of the brain and are responsible for self-regulation and goal-directed behavior. The document summarizes several models of executive functions including models by Norman and Shallice, Barkley, Lezak and others. It discusses areas executive functions are involved in and factors that influence executive functions. Common disorders associated with executive dysfunction are also listed.
This document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the frontal lobe and their relation to psychiatry. It begins with the anatomical structures of the frontal lobe including the lateral, medial and orbital surfaces. It then covers the primary functional areas - primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, frontal eye fields, Broca's area, and the prefrontal cortex including dorsolateral, dorsomedial and orbital regions. Neuropsychiatric disorders are discussed like frontal lobe syndrome, traumatic brain injury, frontotemporal dementia, and the relationships between the frontal lobe and conditions like schizophrenia, depression, ADHD, OCD, and alcohol use. Assessment techniques are also covered.
The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal lobe below the cortex and plays an important role in memory consolidation, emotions, navigation, and spatial orientation. Three studies were summarized. The first found that more physically fit children had a larger hippocampus. The second found that long-term ecstasy users had a smaller hippocampus. The third found that Gulf War veterans who had recovered from PTSD had larger hippocampal volumes than those who had not recovered. Damage to the hippocampus can cause amnesia or memory loss and may eventually lead to Alzheimer's disease.
The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal lobe and plays an important role in memory formation and emotion. It helps transfer information from short-term to long-term memory. Damage to the hippocampus is linked to memory loss and cognitive impairments seen in conditions like Alzheimer's disease and epilepsy. The hippocampus also appears to shrink in patients with schizophrenia and severe depression.
Hunger is a feeling of discomfort or weakness caused by lack of food coupled with a desire to eat. The digestive system influences food selection through digestion that begins in the mouth and travels through the esophagus and stomach before entering the small intestine where enzymes digest nutrients which are then absorbed and the remaining waste exits through the large intestine. Hunger is controlled by the hypothalamus which is triggered by lowering blood sugar levels and turns off the hunger drive once glucose levels are replenished. Food selection is influenced by learning from others' experiences of distinguishing edible from inedible foods and finding nutrients as well as conditioned taste aversions from pairing foods with illness. The brain mechanisms controlling hunger involve the arcuate nucleus and par
This document discusses the biological basis of memory. It covers topics like the definition of memory, different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term, working), memory processes (encoding, storage, retrieval), neuroplasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation, molecular basis of memory formation, brain structures involved in memory like the hippocampus and amnesia. It provides historical context on pioneering figures who studied memory and describes classical experiments that advanced the understanding of the neurological underpinnings of memory.
Memory refers to the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. There are three main stages: encoding, where information is processed and changed into a usable form; storage, where encoded information is kept in memory; and retrieval, where stored memories are brought into conscious awareness. There are two basic types of memory - procedural memory for skills and actions, and declarative memory for facts and episodes. Declarative memory has two subcategories: episodic memory for personally experienced events, and semantic memory for general knowledge not based on personal experience.
This document discusses the differences between normal forgetfulness, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia. Normal forgetfulness is not progressive or disabling and is affected by stress, fatigue, illness, or distraction. MCI is a transitional state between normal forgetfulness and dementia where at least one cognitive domain like memory is below normal but daily activities are not impaired. Dementia causes severe memory loss that interferes with social and work functioning, and can be caused by conditions like Alzheimer's disease or strokes. It is characterized by intellectual decline from previous levels and impaired functions beyond just memory.
The document discusses ways to improve memory and prevent forgetfulness. It notes that the brain can store and recall more information the more "zigzags" it has due to increased neural connections. It recommends exercising one's memory through techniques like mind maps, and maintaining neuron health by consuming foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vegetables, fruits, nuts, green tea, coffee and chocolate which can increase neural activity and prevent Alzheimer's disease. Regular memory tests are also suggested to maintain a strong memory over time.
The world of human memory is a fascinating, enigmatic and complex subject. From the methods needed to transform short-term information into long-term memories, to what foods can help to boost memory performance, there’s no shortage of viable information out there for the curious.
However, when it comes to overcoming forgetfulness, there’s seems to be a gap in the information that neurological experts have presented to us. Why is it so easy to forget short-term information? Why are some memories preserved while others are not? And why does the brain forget information that we try so hard to hold on to?
Whether you’ve dealt with occasional bouts of forgetfulness or you’re renowned for your ability to lose track of things, not to worry: you’re about to discover the top tips you need to overcome forgetfulness once and for all!
The document discusses four major theories of forgetting: decay theory, interference theory, motivated forgetting theory, and retrieval failure theory. It focuses on decay theory, which states that memories naturally fade over time without being accessed. Interference theory suggests that new memories can interfere with old ones, either when stored or retrieved. Motivated forgetting theory proposes that unpleasant or threatening memories may be purposefully forgotten.
Forgetting is the opposite of remembering and occurs when information is not retained in memory. Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus scientifically studied forgetting using nonsense syllables with himself as the subject. His findings, known as the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve, showed that information is often lost quickly after learning and that factors like rehearsal affect how quickly memories are lost. There are many factors that can cause forgetting, including encoding failure, the natural decay of memory traces over time, lack of rehearsal or use of learned material, interference from other materials being learned, and amnesia from brain damage.
The document discusses several theories of forgetting. It defines different types of forgetting such as natural forgetting, morbid forgetting, general forgetting, and specific forgetting. It also outlines some key theories of why forgetting takes place, including trace decay theory, displacement in short-term memory, encoding failure, interference and retrieval failure in long-term memory, and motivated forgetting through suppression and repression.
1) The document outlines various theories and factors related to remembering and forgetting, including organization of memories in networks, forgetting curves, reasons for forgetting like interference and amnesia, and strategies for improving memory like mnemonics.
2) It discusses a study comparing decay theory and displacement theory as explanations for forgetting from short-term memory. The study used a probe-digit procedure with lists presented at slow and fast rates to separate the effects of time from additional digits.
3) The results supported the displacement theory, showing equivalent recall for slow and fast presentation rates, suggesting additional digits rather than time caused forgetting from short-term memory.
The document discusses several theories of forgetting, including trace decay theory, displacement, interference, and cue-dependent forgetting. Trace decay theory proposes that memories fade over time due to lack of rehearsal. Displacement refers to limited slots in short-term memory being overwritten when new information is introduced. Interference occurs when new information conflicts with or inhibits recall of old memories. Cue-dependent forgetting suggests that context and retrieval cues affect memory recall. Various factors like attention, consolidation, brain damage, and emotional states also influence forgetting. The document then reviews techniques for improving memory through organization, repetition, mnemonics, and mind mapping.
Memory, Forgetting,Psychology, 3 Phases of Memory, Division and sub categories of memory, four general stages of memory, sequential category levels of memory, two types of memory recollection, physical structure of memory, basic factors affecting memory, forgetting, the ebbinghaus forgetting curve, reasons for forgetting information, memorization technique
Forgetting occurs when previously stored information cannot be retrieved. There are several theories for why forgetting occurs, including decay theory, interference theory, and retrieval failure theory. Decay theory proposes that memories fade over time as the memory traces in the brain weaken without reinforcement. Interference theory suggests that new learning can interfere with retrieving older memories. Retrieval failure theory posits that forgetting is due to an inability to access stored information using the appropriate retrieval cues, rather than the information actually being lost.
The document discusses several theories of learning and motivation. It begins by defining learning as a permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. It then covers several theories of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning, and social learning. For motivation, it discusses content theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and process theories like Vroom's expectancy theory and equity theory. The document provides an overview of the key concepts and implications of several important psychological theories related to learning and motivation.
Memory and its types and Causes of Forgetting - PPTArun Joseph
This document discusses memory and forgetting. It defines memory as the process of storing and recalling experiences and information over time. Several components are involved, including learning, retention, recall/retrieval, and recognition. Factors that influence memory include motivation, attention, repetition, meaningfulness of material, and using multiple senses. The document also discusses different types of memory like short term, long term, habit, and episodic memory. Causes of normal forgetting include disuse, interference, inadequate learning, lack of interest, while abnormal forgetting may result from injury or trauma. Strategies to address forgetting include understanding students, using memory techniques, and creating a supportive learning environment.
There are 3 types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Short-term memory acts as a temporary storage and recall space, while long-term memory stores information indefinitely. Within long-term memory there are two main categories: explicit (declarative) memory of facts and autobiographical events, and implicit (procedural) memory of skills and habits. Encoding and retrieval are important processes that involve moving information between memory systems through attention, rehearsal, and meaning-making connections to existing knowledge.
Psychology Memory and Learning Power PointMrTimBradley
This document provides an overview of memory and learning concepts. It discusses the three stages of memory (encoding, storage, and retrieval). It describes the different types of memory like sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It also discusses how learning occurs through classical and operant conditioning, and how cognitive factors like latent learning, cognitive maps, insight, learned helplessness, and observational learning impact the learning process. Key terms and concepts related to memory and different types of learning are defined and explained with examples.
Sensory memory briefly stores perceptions and passes them to short-term memory. Short-term memory stores recently acquired information through working memory. Long-term memory securely stores information for long periods through explicit (declarative) memory of facts and episodic memory of experiences, and implicit (procedural) memory of skills. The three processes of memory are encoding, which converts information into a storable form; storage, where information resides in the brain over time; and retrieval, where the brain recalls previously learned information.
There are three main types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Memory theories propose that information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in different stages. The most widely accepted theory is the information processing theory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, which describes a multi-stage model of memory involving input, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Better processing and elaboration of information leads to stronger long-term memories according to levels of processing theories.
1. The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory consists of three main stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
2. Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information, short-term memory can hold information for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stores information indefinitely.
3. The working memory model updated the multi-store model by proposing two slave systems - the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad - that actively maintain information in short-term memory under the control of a central executive.
Learning takes four basic forms: perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Studies of amnesia patients like H.M., who had his hippocampus removed, showed that the hippocampus is vital for forming new long-term memories and declarative memory like recalling events. Damage to different brain areas results in different types of amnesia, like Korsakoff's syndrome from thiamine deficiency or Alzheimer's disease associated with amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain.
This document discusses theories of learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It covers classical and operant conditioning pioneered by Pavlov and others. It discusses research on memory systems like short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. It also examines cases of amnesia like patient H.M. who helped reveal the hippocampus' role in forming new memories. The document concludes by covering two types of amnesia - Korsakoff's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease.
The document discusses learning, memory, and amnesia by examining several case studies and research findings. It summarizes the case of patient H.M., who developed severe anterograde amnesia after temporal lobe removal. Studies on H.M. showed that the medial temporal lobes are involved in memory formation and that short-term and long-term memory are separate. The document also discusses other forms of amnesia and their neural bases, such as Korsakoff's syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, and post-traumatic amnesia. It examines the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation and object recognition. Memory is thought to be stored diffusely throughout the brain in the structures involved in initial encoding
This document discusses how memories are formed and stored in the brain. It explains that memories are formed through synaptic plasticity, which refers to changes in the strength of connections between neurons. These connections are made stronger or weaker based on past activation patterns. Three key areas involved in memory are the hippocampus, which forms episodic memories; the amygdala, which attaches emotional significance; and the neocortex, where memories may be consolidated over time. Different memory systems rely on different brain regions, such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum for implicit memories, and the prefrontal cortex for working memory. The document also outlines how occupational therapists assess memory through standardized tests and occupation-based evaluations.
This document summarizes relational learning and amnesia. It defines relational learning as a complex form of learning involving relations among stimuli, including spatial, episodic, and observational learning. It describes two types of long-term memory - declarative and non-declarative. Declarative memory, impaired in amnesia, involves facts and life events. Amnesia causes difficulty learning new information and remembering the past. There are two types of amnesia - anterograde involving new learning, and retrograde involving past memories. Damage to the hippocampus and related structures causes anterograde amnesia by impairing relational learning, or learning relationships among stimuli.
Much of what is known about memory comes from studying memory disorders like amnesia, which is a loss of memory. Amnesia can be caused by damage to parts of the temporal lobe or midline diencephalic region. Other disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's can also affect memory. Studying different forms of amnesia has provided insights into the brain's memory systems.
This document summarizes different types of memory and memory processes. It defines explicit memory as clearly expressed memories, and implicit memory as suggested memories. It distinguishes between retrospective memory of past events and prospective memory for future acts. The stages of memory processing are encoding, storage through maintenance or elaborative rehearsal, and retrieval. Different memory systems include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Factors like context, state of mind, interference, and amnesia can affect memory retrieval and storage.
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
a mass of tissue formed as a result of abnormal, excessive, uncoordinated, autonomous and purposeless proliferation of cells even after cessation of stimulus for growth which caused it
This chapter discusses the interconnections between memory acquisition and retrieval. It covers topics like encoding specificity, where remembering is dependent on the context. Implicit memory is examined, which involves indirect memory tests that measure memory the person may not be consciously aware of, like priming effects. The chapter also discusses different forms of memory testing like recall versus recognition. The distinction between explicit and implicit memory is supported by cases of amnesia, where explicit memory is impaired but implicit memory remains intact.
Neuropsychology studies how the brain influences cognition and behavior. It aims to understand how brain function impacts learning, memory, and disorders. Learning is the acquisition of skills or knowledge through a generally slow process, while memory is the retention and expression of what has been learned through a faster process. Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval, and can be impaired through brain damage or amnesia. Imaging techniques like PET and MRI help study memory and brain structures involved like the hippocampus and temporal lobes. Animal models also provide insights into specific memory systems and their brain regions.
Localization of function psychology IBMette Morell
I would rate this SAQ response in the high band (7-8). It effectively meets the demands of the command term "explain" by providing a focused answer that discusses one relevant study (Broca's research) in detail. It summarizes the key aspects of Broca's study and methodology, and draws an appropriate conclusion about how this research contributed to understanding of localization of function in the brain. The response demonstrates accurate knowledge and understanding of Broca's research and its significance.
1. The study of neurobiology investigates how the nervous system, brain, and structures like the spinal cord work.
2. Child abuse is considered a public health issue, and researchers have been studying how exposure to traumatic life events affects children's mental health for decades. However, this raises questions about how trauma affects brain development.
3. Exposure to frequent or chronic traumatic experiences can negatively impact neurobiological development, especially factors like the child's age during initial trauma and the frequency and nature of traumatic events.
Brain Structures involved in Memory.pptxMAnvi794822
The hippocampus forms episodic memories from life events and indexes them for later retrieval. The amygdala attaches emotional significance to memories, making them more permanent. Information from memories can be transferred from the hippocampus to the neocortex for long-term storage as general knowledge. The prefrontal cortex is involved in complex cognitive functions like short-term memory and shows separation between verbal and spatial working memory in its left and right sides.
Dr. Suresh Kumar Murugesan PhD and Ms. Jothi are the founders of Yellow Pond counselling centre in Tamil Nadu, India. They are positive psychologists who have conducted training and webinars. The presentation discusses the neuroscience of memory, including the different types of memory like sensory memory, working memory, long term memory, explicit memory and implicit memory. It examines the areas of the brain involved in each memory system like the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum. The role of neurotransmitters and long term potentiation in memory formation is also covered.
This document summarizes a student's thesis project investigating the role of high frequency oscillations (HFOs) in spatial memory tasks. The student presents evidence that replay of rodent grid cells during sharp-wave ripple complexes is low compared to replay in place cells. The student also reports on a pilot study with an epilepsy patient, one of the first to attempt detecting HFOs during cognitive processes. Future research controlling task design may help identify behavioral correlates of HFOs and their role in cognitive function and memory processes.
Information processing involves three main steps - encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves paying attention to process information through either automatic or effortful processing. There are two main types of memory storage - sensory memory which fades quickly, and long-term memory which can store memories permanently. Context is important for retrieval as memories are best recalled in the same context they were encoded in. Forgetting can occur due to failures in encoding, storage or retrieval and can be caused by interference or motivated forgetting.
The hippocampus is a part of the brain located in the temporal lobe that plays an important role in forming, organizing, and storing memories, especially explicit or fact-based memories. It is also involved in spatial navigation. Damage to the hippocampus can result from conditions like hypoxia, head injuries, old age, epilepsy, stress, or encephalitis and can cause amnesia or an inability to form new memories as well as other symptoms. Studies have shown that exercise can increase the size of the hippocampus in older adults, and that naps help transfer memories from short-term hippocampal storage to long-term cortical storage.
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Couple therapy and treatment of sexual dysfunctionGladys Escalante
Psychology: Couple Therapy and Transsexual dysfunction
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Treatment of sexual dysfunction, Clinical Psychology,
Narrative therapy focuses on externalizing problems rather than internalizing them in clients. Therapists help clients develop alternative stories and new narratives by asking questions, exploring exceptions, and collaborating to reauthor their life stories in a preferred direction. The goal is to guide clients to see themselves as competent and separate from problems, and to envision new possibilities rather than being defined by problem-saturated stories from the past.
This document discusses several ethical issues in couples and family therapy including responsibility to clients, confidentiality, informed consent, training issues, and dealing with intimate partner violence. It notes that therapists must maintain professional competence and integrity, protect client confidentiality with exceptions when harm may occur, obtain informed consent covering the therapy process, and protect victims of intimate partner violence while also helping the violent partner change. Therapists are advised to have self-knowledge, obtain proper training and supervision, and avoid imposing their own values onto clients.
This document summarizes key topics in everyday memory and memory errors from a psychology textbook chapter. It discusses how autobiographical memory works and factors that influence what events people remember from their lives, like the reminiscence bump where memories are stronger from adolescence and early adulthood. It also examines flashbulb memories of significant events, the constructive nature of memory, and how suggestion and misinformation can lead to memory errors or false memories. Eyewitness testimony is discussed as being prone to inaccuracy due to various cognitive and social factors.
There are three main categories of vertebrate muscles. Skeletal muscles control body movement and are innervated by motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction. Movement requires coordinated contraction of antagonistic muscle groups. Diseases like myasthenia gravis and Parkinson's disease impact muscle function and movement by disrupting signaling at the neuromuscular junction or depleting dopamine in the basal ganglia.
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Chapter 2 of the textbook "Biological Psychology" by James Kalat. It summarizes the main cell types in the nervous system - neurons and glial cells. It describes the main parts of a neuron including dendrites, soma, axon and presynaptic terminals. It also discusses how neurons communicate via nerve impulses and the role of myelin sheathing and the blood-brain barrier.
The document discusses several key topics in biological psychology including the mind-brain relationship, genetics of behavior, and use of animals in research. It explores dualism vs monism perspectives on the mind-brain problem and examines the role of genes, DNA, RNA, and proteins in determining behavior. It also addresses the controversy around using animals in psychological research and different views on its justification.
The document discusses psychological disorders including substance abuse and addictions, mood disorders like depression and bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. It provides details on the causes, symptoms, treatments and neurobiology of these conditions. For substance abuse, it describes how addictive substances increase dopamine activity in the brain and how this can lead to addiction. For mood disorders, it outlines factors like genes and stress that can contribute to depression and notes treatments like antidepressants. For schizophrenia, it discusses possible genetic and environmental causes and symptoms of the condition.
1) The document discusses theories of emotion, including the James-Lange theory which suggests that emotional feelings arise from physiological arousal and responses in the body.
2) Research on emotion indicates a complex interplay between physiological responses, cognition, and brain activity in various regions like the limbic system and cortex.
3) The document also covers theories of aggressive and fearful behaviors, their ties to genetics, hormones, brain regions like the amygdala, and environmental factors. Serotonin and other neurotransmitters influence behaviors as well.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation which enables evolutionary adaptations. Hormones communicate throughout the body, including sex hormones like androgens and estrogens. Sex hormones influence reproductive organs and behaviors through organizing and activating effects, and there are sensitive periods of development when hormones shape the brain and body. Differences exist between male and female anatomy, hormones, sexual behaviors, and cognitive abilities, which some evolutionary perspectives suggest relate to ancestral reproductive strategies.
The document summarizes key concepts about temperature regulation and hunger/thirst regulation in the human body. It discusses how the hypothalamus regulates body temperature through mechanisms like sweating, shivering, and blood flow. It also explains how the hypothalamus and hormones regulate hunger, thirst, and satiety in response to glucose levels, stomach distention, leptin, and other factors. Genetic and environmental factors can influence conditions like obesity.
- Animals generate circadian and circannual rhythms that regulate sleep/wake cycles, eating/drinking patterns, temperature, hormone secretion and other functions on 24-hour and yearly cycles respectively.
- Humans have a circadian rhythm slightly longer than 24 hours that is reset by light/dark cues. Disruption of circadian rhythms can cause jet lag. The suprachiasmatic nucleus regulates circadian rhythms.
- Sleep stages include NREM (stages 1-4) and REM sleep. REM is characterized by dreaming and paralysis while NREM deepens across stages 1-4. Sleep aids restoration, energy conservation, memory consolidation and more.
There are three main categories of vertebrate muscles. Skeletal muscles control body movement and are innervated by motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction. Movement requires coordinated contraction of antagonistic muscle groups. Disorders like myasthenia gravis and Parkinson's disease impact muscle function and movement by disrupting signaling at the neuromuscular junction or dopamine production in the brain.
The document summarizes the main sensory systems in humans. It discusses audition/hearing, including the anatomy of the outer, middle, and inner ear and how sound is transduced and processed in the brain. It also describes the vestibular sense, touch, pain, taste, and olfaction/smell. For each sense, it outlines the receptors, neural pathways, and processing in the brain, as well as some individual differences in sensitivity.
The document summarizes key aspects of vision and the visual system. It describes how light is received by the retina and transmitted via the optic nerve. It discusses the roles of rods and cones, retinal ganglion cells, the lateral geniculate nucleus, and visual processing in the primary and secondary visual cortices. It also covers topics like receptive fields, color perception, motion perception, development of vision, and conditions that can impact visual development.
The document discusses the development and plasticity of the brain. It notes that the brain develops rapidly early in life through processes like proliferation, differentiation, myelination and synaptogenesis. Experience and physical maturation influence brain development throughout life. The brain has some ability to reorganize itself in response to experiences, as seen in cases of brain damage recovery where new connections form.
Sherrington coined the term "synapse" and observed that neurons communicate chemically at junctions between neurons called synapses. He discovered the concepts of temporal and spatial summation - that repeated or multiple stimuli can have cumulative effects. Neurotransmitters are chemicals released at synapses that allow communication between neurons. They bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron and can have excitatory or inhibitory effects. Drugs can influence synapses by altering neurotransmitter synthesis, release, reuptake or receptor binding.
This summary outlines key information about nerve cells and nerve impulses from the document:
- Neurons and glial cells are the two main cell types in the nervous system. Neurons transmit nerve impulses while glia support neuron function.
- Neurons have dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. Dendrites receive signals and the axon transmits signals to other cells.
- A nerve impulse is an electrical signal transmitted along the axon when the neuron is stimulated. It occurs via changes in the neuron's membrane potential and the selective opening/closing of ion channels.
- The nerve impulse is regenerated at the nodes of Ranvier along myel
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In an era where digital innovation is ubiquitous, executives from various corporations frequently seek insights into the tangible benefits that digital transformation can offer. This document outlines a comprehensive framework that elucidates the concept of digital transformation, highlighting its multifaceted dimensions and the pivotal roles it plays in enhancing business competitiveness.
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Technology has become an irreplaceable component of our daily lives. The role of AI in technology revolutionizes our lives for the betterment of the future. In this article, we will learn about the top 12 AI technology trends for 2024.
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This PDF delves into the aspects of information security from a forensic perspective, focusing on privacy leaks. It provides insights into the methods and tools used in forensic investigations to uncover and mitigate privacy breaches in mobile and cloud environments.
Latest Tech Trends Series 2024 By EY IndiaEYIndia1
Stay ahead of the curve with our comprehensive Tech Trends Series! Explore the latest technology trends shaping the world today, from the 2024 Tech Trends report and top emerging technologies to their impact on business technology trends. This series delves into the most significant technological advancements, giving you insights into both established and emerging tech trends that will revolutionize various industries.
Uncharted Together- Navigating AI's New Frontiers in LibrariesBrian Pichman
Journey into the heart of innovation where the collaborative spirit between information professionals, technologists, and researchers illuminates the path forward through AI's uncharted territories. This opening keynote celebrates the unique potential of special libraries to spearhead AI-driven transformations. Join Brian Pichman as we saddle up to ride into the history of Artificial Intelligence, how its evolved over the years, and how its transforming today's frontiers. We will explore a variety of tools and strategies that leverage AI including some new ideas that may enhance cataloging, unlock personalized user experiences, or pioneer new ways to access specialized research. As with any frontier exploration, we will confront shared ethical challenges and explore how joint efforts can not only navigate but also shape AI's impact on equitable access and information integrity in special libraries. For the remainder of the conference, we will equip you with a "digital compass" where you can submit ideas and thoughts of what you've learned in sessions for a final reveal in the closing keynote.
Keynote : Presentation on SASE TechnologyPriyanka Aash
Secure Access Service Edge (SASE) solutions are revolutionizing enterprise networks by integrating SD-WAN with comprehensive security services. Traditionally, enterprises managed multiple point solutions for network and security needs, leading to complexity and resource-intensive operations. SASE, as defined by Gartner, consolidates these functions into a unified cloud-based service, offering SD-WAN capabilities alongside advanced security features like secure web gateways, CASB, and remote browser isolation. This convergence not only simplifies management but also enhances security posture and application performance across global networks and cloud environments. Discover how adopting SASE can streamline operations and fortify your enterprise's digital transformation strategy.
Choosing the Best Outlook OST to PST Converter: Key Features and Considerationswebbyacad software
When looking for a good software utility to convert Outlook OST files to PST format, it is important to find one that is easy to use and has useful features. WebbyAcad OST to PST Converter Tool is a great choice because it is simple to use for anyone, whether you are tech-savvy or not. It can smoothly change your files to PST while keeping all your data safe and secure. Plus, it can handle large amounts of data and convert multiple files at once, which can save you a lot of time. It even comes with 24*7 technical support assistance and a free trial, so you can try it out before making a decision. Whether you need to recover, move, or back up your data, Webbyacad OST to PST Converter is a reliable option that gives you all the support you need to manage your Outlook data effectively.
Intel Unveils Core Ultra 200V Lunar chip .pdfTech Guru
Intel has made a significant breakthrough in the world of processors with the introduction of its Core Ultra 200V mobile processor series, codenamed Lunar Lake. This innovative processor marks a fundamental shift in the way Intel creates processors, with a high degree of aggregation, including memory-on-package (MoP). The Core Ultra 300 MX series is designed to power thin-and-light devices that are capable of handling the latest AI applications, including Microsoft's Copilot+ experiences.
Discovery Series - Zero to Hero - Task Mining Session 1DianaGray10
This session is focused on providing you with an introduction to task mining. We will go over different types of task mining and provide you with a real-world demo on each type of task mining in detail.
The Zaitechno Handheld Raman Spectrometer is a powerful and portable tool for rapid, non-destructive chemical analysis. It utilizes Raman spectroscopy, a technique that analyzes the vibrational fingerprint of molecules to identify their chemical composition. This handheld instrument allows for on-site analysis of materials, making it ideal for a variety of applications, including:
Material identification: Identify unknown materials, minerals, and contaminants.
Quality control: Ensure the quality and consistency of raw materials and finished products.
Pharmaceutical analysis: Verify the identity and purity of pharmaceutical compounds.
Food safety testing: Detect contaminants and adulterants in food products.
Field analysis: Analyze materials in the field, such as during environmental monitoring or forensic investigations.
The Zaitechno Handheld Raman Spectrometer is easy to use and features a user-friendly interface. It is compact and lightweight, making it ideal for field applications. With its rapid analysis capabilities, the Zaitechno Handheld Raman Spectrometer can help you improve efficiency and productivity in your research or quality control workflows.
Redefining Cybersecurity with AI CapabilitiesPriyanka Aash
In this comprehensive overview of Cisco's latest innovations in cybersecurity, the focus is squarely on resilience and adaptation in the face of evolving threats. The discussion covers the imperative of tackling Mal information, the increasing sophistication of insider attacks, and the expanding attack surfaces in a hybrid work environment. Emphasizing a shift towards integrated platforms over fragmented tools, Cisco introduces its Security Cloud, designed to provide end-to-end visibility and robust protection across user interactions, cloud environments, and breaches. AI emerges as a pivotal tool, from enhancing user experiences to predicting and defending against cyber threats. The blog underscores Cisco's commitment to simplifying security stacks while ensuring efficacy and economic feasibility, making a compelling case for their platform approach in safeguarding digital landscapes.
Cracking AI Black Box - Strategies for Customer-centric Enterprise ExcellenceQuentin Reul
The democratization of Generative AI is ushering in a new era of innovation for enterprises. Discover how you can harness this powerful technology to deliver unparalleled customer value and securing a formidable competitive advantage in today's competitive market. In this session, you will learn how to:
- Identify high-impact customer needs with precision
- Harness the power of large language models to address specific customer needs effectively
- Implement AI responsibly to build trust and foster strong customer relationships
Whether you're at the early stages of your AI journey or looking to optimize existing initiatives, this session will provide you with actionable insights and strategies needed to leverage AI as a powerful catalyst for customer-driven enterprise success.
LeadMagnet IQ Review: Unlock the Secret to Effortless Traffic and Leads.pdfSelfMade bd
Imagine being able to generate high-quality traffic and leads effortlessly. Sounds like a dream, right? Well, it’s not. It’s called LeadMagnet IQ, and it’s here to revolutionize your marketing efforts.
(Note: Download the paper about this software. After that, click on [Click for Instant Access] inside the paper, and it will take you to the sales page of the product.)
2. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning An early influential idea regarding localized representations of memory in the brain suggested physical changes occur when we learn something new. One popular idea was that connections grow between areas of the brain.
3. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Ivan Pavlov researched classical conditioning in which pairing of two stimuli changes the response to one of them. Presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Automatically results in an unconditioned response (UCR ). After several pairings, response can be elicited by the CS without the UCS, which is known as a conditioned response (CR ).
4. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning In operant conditioning , responses are followed by reinforcement or punishment that either strengthen or weaken a behavior. Reinforcers are events that increase the probability that the response will occur again. Punishment are events that decrease the probability that the response will occur again.
6. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Pavlov believed that conditioning strengthened connections between the CS center and UCS center in the brain. Karl Lashley set out to prove this by searching for such engrams , or physical representations of what had been learned. Believed that a knife cut should abolish the newly learned response.
8. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Lashley’s studies attempted to see if disrupting certain connections between cortical brain areas would disrupt abilities to learn associations. Found that learning and memory did not depend on connections across the cortex Also found that learning did not depend on a single area of the cortex.
9. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Lashley proposed two key principles about the nervous system: Equipotentiality – all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex functioning behaviors (e.g. learning) Mass action – the cortex works as a whole, not as solitary isolated units.
10. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Modern day research by Richard F. Thompson and colleagues has suggested that the engram for classical conditioning is located in the cerebellum, not the cortex. During conditioning, changes occur in cells of one nucleus of the cerebellum called the lateral interpositus nucleus (LIP) . However, a change in a brain area does not necessarily mean that learning necessarily took place in that area.
12. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Suppression of activity in the LIP led to a condition in which the subject displayed no previous learning. As suppression wore off, the animal began to learn at the same speed as animals that had no previous training. But suppression of the red nucleus also led to a similar condition. Later assumed that the learning did occur in the LIP, as it was the last structure that needed to be awake for learning to occur.
13. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Hebb (1949) differentiated between two types of memory: Short-term memory – memory of events that have just occurred. Long-term memory – memory of events from previous times.
14. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Differences between STM and LTM Short-term memory has a limited capacity; long-term memory does not. Short-term memory fades quickly without rehearsal; long-term memories persist. Memories from long-term memory can be stimulated with a cue/ hint; retrieval of memories lost from STM do not benefit from the presence of a cue.
15. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Later research has weakened the distinction between STM and LTM. Some memories do not qualify as distinctly short-term or long-term. Working Memory Proposed by Baddeley & Hitch as an alternative to short-term memory. Emphasis on temporary storage of information to actively attend to it and work on it for a period of time.
16. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Three major components of working memory include: Phonological loop – Stores auditory input Visuospatial sketchpad – Stores visual input. Central Executive – Directs attention and determines which items to store.
17. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning The delayed response task is a test of working memory which requires responding to a stimulus that one heard or saw a short while earlier. Increased activity in the prefrontal cortex during the delay indicates storing of the memory. The stronger the activation, the better the performance.
19. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Older people often have impairments in working memory. Changes in the prefrontal cortex assumed to be the cause. Declining activity of the prefrontal cortex in the elderly is associated with decreasing memory. Increased activity is indicative of compensation for other regions in the brain.
20. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Amnesia is the loss of memory. Studies on amnesia help to clarify the distinctions between and among different kinds of memories and their mechanisms. Different areas of the hippocampus are active during memory formation and retrieval. Damage results in amnesia.
21. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Patient HM is a famous case study in psychology who had his hippocampus removed to prevent epileptic seizures. Afterwards Patient HM had great difficulty forming new long-term memories. STM or working memory remained intact. Suggested that the hippocampus is vital for the formation of new long-term memories.
23. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Patient HM showed massive anterograde amnesia after the surgery. Two major types of amnesia include: Anterograde amnesia – the loss of the ability to form new memory after the brain damage occurred. Retrograde amnesia – the loss of memory events prior to the occurrence of the brain damage.
24. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Patient HM had difficulty with declarative and episodic memory. Episodic memory: ability to recall single events. Declarative memory: ability to put a memory into words. Patient HM’s procedural memory remained intact. Procedural memory : ability to develop motor skills (remembering or learning how to do things).
25. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Patient HM also displayed greater “implicit” than “explicit” memory. Explicit memory – deliberate recall of information that one recognizes as a memory. Implicit memory – the influence of recent experience on behavior without realizing one is using memory.
26. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Research in differences in hippocampus size has revealed conflicting results. Some evidence suggests that a smaller hippocampus is associated with better memory performance. Hypothesis is that apoptosis improves hippocampus functioning. Generally, hippocampus activity is more associated with memory performance than is the size.
27. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Research of the function of the hippocampus suggests the following: The hippocampus is critical for declarative (especially episodic) memory functioning. The hippocampus is especially important for spatial memory. The hippocampus is especially important for configural learning and binding.
28. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Research in the role of the hippocampus in episodic memory shows damage impairs abilities on two types of tasks: Delayed matching-to-sample tasks – a subject sees an object and must later choose the object that matches. Delayed non-matching-to-sample tasks – subject sees an object and must later choose the object that is different than the sample.
30. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Damage to the hippocampus also impairs abilities on spatial tasks such as: Radial mazes – a subject must navigate a maze that has eight or more arms with a reinforcer at the end. Morris search task – a rat must swim through murky water to find a rest platform just underneath the surface.
31. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Hippocampus damage also impairs configural learning and binding. Configural learning – learning in which the meaning of a stimulus depends on what other stimuli are paired with it. Animals with damage can learn configural tasks but learning is slow. Indicates hippocampus is not necessary for configural learning, but is involved.
32. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Evidence suggests that the hippocampus is important in the process of “consolidation”. Consolidation is the process of strengthening short-term memories into long-term memories. Damage to the hippocampus impairs recent learning more than older learning. The more consolidated a memory becomes, the less it depends on the hippocampus.
33. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Reverberating circuits of neuronal activity were thought to be the mechanisms of consolidation. Consolidation is also influenced by the passage of time and emotions. Small to moderate amounts of cortisol activate the amygdala and hippocampus where they enhance storage and consolidation of recent experiences. Prolonged stress impairs memory.
35. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Different kinds of brain damage result in different types of amnesia. Two common types of brain damage include: Korsakoff’s syndrome Alzheimer’s disease
36. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Korsakoff’s syndrome – prolonged thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency impedes the ability of the brain to metabolize glucose. Leads to a loss of or shrinkage of neurons in the brain. Often due to chronic alcoholism. Symptoms include apathy, confusion, and forgetting and confabulation (taking guesses to fill in gaps in memory).
37. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a gradually progressive loss of memory often occurring in old age. Affects 50% of people over 85. Early onset seems to be influenced by genes, but 99% of cases are late onset. About half of all patients with late onset have no known relative with the disease.
39. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Alzheimer’s disease is associated with an accumulation and clumping of the following brain proteins: Amyloid beta protein 42 which produces widespread atrophy of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and other areas. An abnormal form of the tau protein, part of the intracellular support system of neurons.
40. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Accumulation of the tau protein results in: Plaques – structures formed from degenerating neurons. Tangles – structures formed from degenerating structures within a neuronal body.
41. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning A major area of damage is the basal forebrain and treatment includes enhancing acetylcholine activity. One experimental treatment includes the stimulation of cannabinoid receptors that limits overstimulation by glutamate. Research with mice suggests the possibility of immunizing against Alzheimer’s by stimulating the production of antibodies against amyloid beta protein.
42. Learning, Memory, Amnesia, and Brain Functioning Lessons from studying amnesiac patients include: There can be deficiencies of very different aspects of memory. There are independent kinds of memory. Various kinds of memory depend on different brain areas.
43. Storing Information in the Nervous System (con’t) Activity in the brain results in physical changes. Patterns of activity leave a path of physical changes. Not every change is a specific memory as was once originally believed.
44. Storing Information in the Nervous System A Hebbian synapse occurs when the successful stimulation of a cell by an axon leads to the enhanced ability to stimulate that cell in the future. Increases in effectiveness occur because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. Such synapses may be critical for many kinds of associative learning.
45. Storing Information in the Nervous System Studies of how physiology relates to learning often focus on invertebrates and try to generalize to vertebrates. The aplysia is a slug-like invertebrate that is often studied due to its large neurons. This allows researchers to study basic processes such as: Habituation. Sensitization.
46. Storing Information in the Nervous System Habituation is a decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly and accompanied by no change in other stimuli. Results in a change in the synapse between the sensory neurons and the motor neurons. Sensory neurons fail to excite motor neurons as they did previously.
47. Storing Information in the Nervous System Sensitization is an increase in response to a mild stimulus as a result to previous exposure to a more intense stimulus. Changes at identified synapses include: Serotonin released from a facilitating neuron blocks potassium channels in a presynaptic neuron. Prolonged release of transmitter from that neuron results in prolonged sensitization.
48. Storing Information in the Nervous System Long-term Potentiation (LTP) occurs when one or more axons bombard a dendrite with stimulation. Leaves the synapse “potentiated” for a period of time and the neuron is more responsive.
49. Storing Information in the Nervous System Properties of LTP that suggest it as a cellular basis of learning and memory include: Specificity Cooperativity Associativity
50. Storing Information in the Nervous System Specificity – only synapses onto a cell that have been highly active become strengthened. Cooperativity – simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP much more strongly than does repeated stimulation by a single axon. Associativity – pairing a weak input with a strong input enhances later responses to a weak input.
51. Storing Information in the Nervous System Long-term depression (LTD ) is a prolonged decrease in response at a synapse that occurs when axons have been active at a low frequency. The opposite of LTP
52. Storing Information in the Nervous System Biochemical mechanisms of LTP are known to depend on changes in glutamate synapses primarily in the postsynaptic neuron This occurs at several types of receptor sites including the ionotropic receptors: AMPA receptors. NMDA receptors.
54. Storing Information in the Nervous System LTP in hippocampal neurons occurs as follows: Repeated glutamate excitation of AMPA receptors depolarizes the membrane. The depolarization removes magnesium ions that had been blocking NMDA receptors. Glutamate is then able to excite the NMDA receptors, opening a channel for calcium ions to enter the neuron.
55. Storing Information in the Nervous System Entry of calcium through the NMDA channel triggers further changes. Activation of a protein that sets in motion a series of events occurs. More AMPA receptors are built and dendritic branching is increased. These changes increase the later responsiveness of the dendrite to incoming glutamate.
56. Storing Information in the Nervous System Changes in presynaptic neuron can also cause LTP. Extensive stimulation of a postsynaptic cell causes the release of a retrograde transmitter that travels back to the presynaptic cell to cause the following changes: Decrease in action potential threshold Increase neurotransmitter release of Expansion of the axons. Transmitter release from additional sites.
57. Storing Information in the Nervous System LTP changes behavior by creating changes in multiple synapses and complex networks of neurons. Understanding the mechanisms of changes that enhance or impair LTP may lead to drugs that improve memory. Example: Mice with genes that cause abnormalities in the NMDA receptor learn slowly and extra NMDA receptors result in faster learning.