The document discusses several approaches to teaching literature:
- The skills based approach focuses on developing reading comprehension skills like understanding letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs.
- The information-based approach uses literature as a source of information about history, literary movements, and more.
- The personal response approach encourages learners' emotional and intellectual involvement by relating texts to their own experiences and opinions.
This document discusses reading skills and comprehension. It defines reading as using vision to interpret symbols according to Dechant. Reading comprehension refers to understanding the author's message by cognitively processing words using experience and knowledge. There are bottom-up and top-down approaches to reading, where bottom-up focuses on linguistic elements and top-down uses background knowledge. Schema theory holds that past experiences create mental frameworks to understand new information. The document then lists microskills for reading comprehension and strategies for activating schema when reading.
This document discusses assessing grammar. It provides definitions of grammar and explains that assessing grammar is important for determining student proficiency, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and giving feedback. There are different types of grammar assessment formats, including recognition, production, editing, and transformation. The reasons for assessment include diagnosing student abilities and tracking progress. Formative assessment is ongoing, while summative assessment occurs at the end of learning. Authentic assessment and avoiding grammatical terms in instructions are also discussed.
Reading is a communication skill that involves a series of cognitive steps. The main steps are perception, where the reader perceives written symbols; comprehension, where the reader understands the text; and reaction, where the reader evaluates the text. There are different psychological theories of reading, including bottom-up phonics, top-down whole language, and interactive compensatory approaches. Key reading theorists include Kenneth Goodman, Jean Piaget, Rumelhart, and Patricia Carrell, who discussed cognitive processes like schema and psycholinguistic guessing. The reading process is complex, active, visual, and dependent on prior knowledge and experience. Different types of reading materials aim to develop skills or provide enjoyment.
The document summarizes several prominent reading models: the bottom-up and top-down models, which emphasize text-based or experience-based reading respectively; the interactive model, which combines these approaches; Rumelhart's model of perceptual and cognitive processes in reading; Stanovich's interactive-compensatory model; the schema-theoretic view of Anderson and Pearson; Pearson and Tierney's model of the reader as an active composer; and Mathewson's model of the role of attitude and motivation in reading.
The document discusses the bottom-up, or part-to-whole, model of the reading process proposed by Gough. According to this model, reading involves hierarchically processing text from small parts like letters and sounds to larger units like words, sentences, and full comprehension. The model believes readers must first identify visual features, link them to letters, then words, and finally build understanding of sentences and full texts. However, the bottom-up model has been criticized for underestimating the role of readers' prior knowledge and expectations in processing text.
The document summarizes three reading models: the bottom-up model which emphasizes decoding text from individual letters and words to derive meaning; the top-down model where readers use their background knowledge and schema to predict meaning from text; and the interactive model where both bottom-up and top-down processes are used simultaneously throughout the reading process with the reader interacting with the text to construct meaning.
Developmental Reading Program
Is a systematic instruction in reading skills and strategies.
Aims:
Generate a positive attitude towards reading process through changing reading habits,
Change reading weakness into strengths,
Let students become aware of their learning techniques which can enable any person, student, or other wise,
Become more successful in real life-learning situations.
“A reading program in which students who are able readers continue to be taught reading skills in a sequential program of instruction, designed to reinforce and extend the skills and appreciations acquired in the previous years, and develop new skills as they are needed.”
-Umans(1964)
Skill Ladder of Goodell
Phonetic Analysis
International Phonetic Alphabet
Using Structural Analysis
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Reading Pyramid
Developmental Reading Behaviors
Components of a Balanced Literacy Program
Read Aloud
The teacher or another person reads aloud to the student. The teacher has the primary responsibility; the students are the attentive observers. The teacher models fluency and expression in reading. The activity promotes literature enjoyment.
Shared Reading
The teacher will share the responsibility of reading with the students. The teachers still has the primary responsibility for reading, but the students may have their own copy. Students take a more active role
Guided Reading
The heart of instructional reading program.
The bridge between shared reading and independent reading
Guide, observer monitor, responder, and questioner
Determining a student’s developmental stage in reading is important for success.
Different cueing systems
Independent Reading
Students choose what they want to read according to what their interests.
The teacher support, observe, and respond t their efforts.
Writing Aloud
Models his thinking, planning, questioning, drafting and revising.
The teacher literally writes aloud and the students observe.
But should not model the entire writing.
Shared Writing
Demonstrated in collaboration with the students.
Guided Writing
Guides the students towards the creation of their own writing through questioning and clarifying.
Independent Writing
The students writes independently and implement that which they have observed and experienced.
The document discusses the functional-notional approach to language teaching. It describes the historical background and basic claims of the approach. The functional-notional approach focuses on the communicative purposes and functions of language use. It emphasizes learning language through real-world functions like greetings, requests, apologies rather than through grammar rules. The approach is based on the idea that language learning should involve understanding functions, notions (vocabulary related to functions), and exponents (language forms used to express functions). It aims to help learners communicate effectively for different purposes.
1. The document discusses four major theories of reading: behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and transactionalism.
2. Behaviorism views reading as a bottom-up process from individual letters and sounds to whole words and meaning. Cognitivism sees it as an interactive process influenced equally by print and the reader's prior knowledge.
3. Constructivism and the transactional model emphasize that reading is a meaning-making process involving using multiple language cues within a social context. The reader constructs their own understanding by transacting with the text.
The document discusses three main approaches to teaching reading:
1. The Language Experience Approach (LEA) uses students' own words and experiences to create reading material. It helps develop language skills.
2. The Phonics Approach teaches the relationship between letters and sounds. It helps students recognize familiar words and decode new words.
3. The Sight Word Approach teaches high frequency words that are recognized instantly without sounding out. It provides a base for beginning reading.
Each approach has different activities to practice skills like matching pictures, word/letter hunts, blending sounds, and integrating language skills through poems. Videos and songs can also be used in phonics instruction.
This document discusses language assessment and evaluation. It defines key concepts related to assessment, outlines principles of assessment and evaluation, and describes different types and purposes of assessment including diagnostic, formative, and summative assessment. Different assessment tools are also discussed, such as observations, anecdotal records, checklists, and rating scales. The goal of assessment is to improve teaching and learning by gathering information on students' knowledge and abilities.
The document discusses the behaviorist theory of language acquisition. It explains that according to behaviorism, children learn language through imitation, reinforcement, and practice. When children imitate sounds and words they hear, they are praised or given affection as positive reinforcement, which conditions them to repeat those sounds and words. However, the behaviorist theory has been criticized for not accounting for factors like learning abstract words or novel language not modeled by caregivers. The document also outlines four main stages of language acquisition according to behaviorism: the babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage, and telegraphic stage.
The document compares the product and process approaches to teaching writing. The product approach focuses on grammatical accuracy and uses model texts for students to copy. It was dominant until the 1980s. The process approach reflects how real writers work, involving brainstorming, multiple drafts, and feedback. It aims to make writing more creative and personalized. Both approaches have benefits and limitations for different learning styles and contexts.
Evaluating and Adapting materials, Technology in ELTUNY Pasca PBI-B
This presentation slide is submitted by Amalia Uswatun Khasanah (18716251042), and Fithrotul Khoiriyah (18716251044) in order to fulfill the task requirement of Resource-based learning materials development class.
The document discusses various topics related to developing and evaluating language learning materials. It defines key terms like authentic and artificial materials. It also outlines different types of syllabus approaches that can be used in materials like situational and topical. The document provides guidelines for evaluating existing materials using checklists of criteria and describes strategies for developing new materials to fill gaps, such as analyzing objectives, classifying them, finding supplemental content, and reorganizing into a coherent curriculum.
The document discusses the four macro skills of communication: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It states that these are the fundamental skills needed to learn any language. When learning a new language, one must engage in balancing practice across all four of these skills. The skills that are not practiced will be weaker. The document then provides more details on each individual skill.
This document defines and compares three types of literature: contemporary, popular, and emergent. Contemporary literature refers to works written after World War II through the present day that reflect current social and political views. Popular literature aims primarily to entertain large audiences through accessible language and plots. Emergent literature is developing and coming into view as new forms like blogs and manga emerge over time. Examples of each type are provided along with comparisons of their key characteristics.
The document discusses different types of conflict that can occur in literature. It defines conflict as a problem or tension, such as between good and evil. Conflict is important to the plot, driving the rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. There are two main types of conflict: external conflict, which is between a character and an outside force like another character (man vs. man), nature (man vs. nature), or society (man vs. society); and internal conflict, which is a struggle within a character's own mind (man vs. self). Other possible conflicts include man vs. supernatural, man vs. fate, and man vs. technology.
Frederic Bartlett first proposed schema theory in 1932 to explain how people's prior knowledge influences their recall and understanding of new information. Schema theory suggests that people organize knowledge into mental structures called schemata, which represent their generic understanding of the world. Schemata guide how people encode, organize, and retrieve new information based on their previous experiences. Later, schema theory was applied to understanding processes like reading, where top-down knowledge schemata are used to interpret new textual information.
Schemas are mental frameworks that help us interpret and understand the world by organizing knowledge and experiences. They were first introduced by Piaget in 1926 and studied further by Bartlett, who found that existing schemas influence how people recall information. Schemas include person schemas about individuals, event schemas about practices and tasks, role schemas about expected behaviors, and self-schemas about past experiences. Movement can involve fast, continuous movements without feedback or slower movements with segmented information and feedback to correct movements.
Reading is important for mental development. It stimulates eye muscles and can help increase IQ, as children who read often tend to have higher IQs. Before television and computers, reading was a primary leisure activity. Reading expands our knowledge and experiences beyond our own narrow lives. It provides the thoughts and experiences of countless others through history. Books have the power to control time and allow us to fly into the future or retreat into the past. Reading is recommended as the best way to relax the mind.
This document discusses the nature and meaning of reading. It defines reading as an active cognitive process of decoding symbols to get and interpret an author's intended meaning. Reading involves using language and world knowledge, and the goal is comprehension rather than decoding individual letters and words. The document also categorizes definitions of reading as either the decoding process or reading for meaning. It outlines components of reading as decoding, comprehension, and retention, and lists academic and other purposes for reading like learning, evaluating information, and reading for pleasure versus in-depth reading. Finally, it provides several reasons why reading is an important skill, such as its role in education, career success, mental development, learning new things, and empowering individuals.
Anothe presentation which can be your reference in making your report in your EDUC 7A classes (Developmental Reading) this is the chapter 3 which focuses on what is developmental reading at its stages and the skills you need to have for proficient reading and of course the problem most kids are facing in terms of reading.
This document discusses various theories of reading instruction. It describes early theories from Thorndike, Gray, and Goodman that viewed reading as a developmental process involving word perception, comprehension, reaction, and synthesis. Later psycholinguistic theories proposed reading involves using graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cueing systems simultaneously. The interactive and transactional theories of the late 20th century proposed reading as an interactive process where the reader interacts with text and prior knowledge. The document also discusses principles of balanced reading instruction incorporating skills, strategies, literature, and writing.
1) Independent reading, where students voluntarily choose reading materials to read on their own time and place, is important for reading achievement and school success.
2) Children who are read to regularly and have their questions answered tend to learn to read earlier and become more proficient readers. Proficient middle school readers also spend more leisure time reading.
3) Programs to promote independent reading should provide engaging reading materials, active parent involvement, and collaboration between schools, homes, and libraries.
This document discusses an interactive reading model that combines top-down and bottom-up processing approaches. It evaluates this interactive model, examines researchers' views that reading involves various complex interactions, and provides examples of literary appreciation skills like poetic language, tone, mood, character, setting, plot, and theme. The document aims to help gain a deeper understanding and appreciation of literature.
The document discusses reading skills and difficulties. It covers three main components of reading: decoding, comprehension, and retention. Decoding involves translating printed words to sounds, comprehension is understanding the text, and retention is keeping or remembering the information read. Some common reading difficulties include dyslexia, vocabulary issues, memory problems, attention problems, and difficulties with decoding, comprehension, or retention.
This chapter reviews literature related to reading. It includes seven sections that describe reading concepts, categories of reading strategies, reading strategy instruction, reasons for using selected strategies, related studies on strategy instruction, the research questions of this study, and the study's hypotheses. Reading is defined as an active process of constructing meaning from text by interacting with prior knowledge. Effective reading involves both top-down and bottom-up strategies. Reading strategies can be categorized as global, cognitive, and supportive strategies and are important tools for active reading. Explicit strategy instruction is recommended to help students learn and apply reading strategies independently.
The document discusses several topics related to reading in a second language including:
1. Bottom-up and top-down models of the reading process where bottom-up involves processing letters and words in order, and top-down uses background knowledge to get meaning from a text.
2. Effective means for building reading fluency like extensive reading, word recognition exercises, and re-reading activities. Extensive reading provides repeated exposure to vocabulary.
3. Skilled readers need mastery of 95% of words in a text for comfortable reading. Context alone is a low-yield strategy for guessing meanings compared to knowing words directly.
4. University L2 readers need knowledge of 10,000 words to understand
This document discusses models of the reading process and provides a history and overview of several influential models:
1. Early models included sequential flow diagrams from visual input to meaning. Later models became more complex, incorporating multiple interactive components and knowledge sources.
2. Rumelhart's interactive model from 1977 emphasized flexible processing and multiple information sources. It allowed information from higher stages like semantics to influence lower stages like word recognition.
3. Stanovich's 1980 model integrated concepts from bottom-up and top-down models. It was interactive, allowing any stage to communicate with any other, and compensatory, allowing readers to rely more on stronger knowledge sources.
The document discusses several models of reading, including interactive and new literacy approaches. It describes interactive approaches as emphasizing the role of prior knowledge and incorporating both top-down and bottom-up processing. Several interactive models are then outlined, including Rumelhart's interactive model involving meaning construction through text interactions. Stanovich's interactive-compensatory model allows for compensation across different processing levels. Schema-theoretic and sociocultural new literacy approaches view reading as an interactive process of integrating new and old information within social contexts. The Pearson/Tierney and Mathewson models also conceptualize reading as an interactive meaning-making process.
The "top down" approach emphasizes readers bringing meaning to text based on their experiential background and interpreting text based on their prior knowledge (whole language).
This document provides an overview of major issues in reading in English language teaching, including bottom-up and top-down reading processes, schema theory, reading as an interactive, purposeful, and critical process, extensive reading, text genres and registers, and implications for EFL reading programs. Key concepts discussed include decoding words, reconstructing meaning, using background knowledge, reading for different purposes, and encouraging extensive independent reading outside of class.
The document outlines several emerging models of the reading process that go beyond traditional bottom-up and top-down models. It summarizes key points of Rumelhart's model from 1977, Stanovich's interactive-compensatory model from 1980, and Anderson and Pearson's schematheoretic views from 1984. It also discusses Pearson and Tierney's reader/writer model and Mathewson's model addressing the role of attitude and motivation in reading.
This document discusses improving reading comprehension for ESL learners online. It notes that second language readers face more challenges than first language readers due to limited linguistic knowledge and differences in cultural/social knowledge. The document reviews theories on top-down and bottom-up reading processes and the interactive approach. It also discusses strategies for teaching reading comprehension, including activating prior knowledge, allowing for sustained silent reading, and using visual representations and group discussions after reading.
The document discusses three models of reading instruction: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive. The bottom-up model emphasizes decoding letters and words before comprehending text. The top-down model emphasizes using context and prior knowledge to understand text. The interactive model views reading as an interaction between bottom-up and top-down processes occurring simultaneously. Researchers described support different aspects of each model, with the interactive model attempting to incorporate the strengths of both bottom-up and top-down approaches.
The document provides strategies and information for teaching content area reading to middle school students. It outlines the purpose of teaching reading strategies which is to help students learn and apply skills like previewing text, activating prior knowledge, acquiring vocabulary, organizing information, and self-monitoring comprehension. The document then lists and describes specific strategies for teachers to use, such as previewing text, using graphic organizers, developing vocabulary, and reciprocal teaching. It also defines common reading terms and provides a framework and overview of the reading process to help teachers structure lessons and assessments.
Lecture 2 reading process & models of readingAinul Zaharah
This document discusses different models of the reading process from a psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspective. It describes two main models:
1. Bottom-up models view reading as a linear process that begins with individual letters and sounds and builds up to words, sentences and overall meaning. This model focuses on basic decoding skills.
2. Top-down models see the reader's prior knowledge and expectations as guiding their understanding of the text. Readers make predictions and sample the text to confirm or adjust their hypotheses. This model emphasizes the role of higher-level thinking.
The document also notes the interactive nature of reading, involving multiple language levels within texts as well as social and intertextual influences between
The document discusses the interactive nature of the reading process. It involves three participants - the writer, the text, and the reader. Reading requires both top-down and bottom-up processing. Top-down processing uses the reader's background knowledge and expectations to interpret the text, while bottom-up processing relies on linguistic cues from the text. Effective reading integrates both top-down and bottom-up processing as the reader interacts with the text using their prior knowledge and reading strategies.
The document discusses several interactive and constructive models of reading:
- Rumelhart's model emphasizes how bottom-up and top-down processes interact through parallel application of sensory and non-sensory information.
- Stanovich's interactive-compensatory model proposes readers use bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously and flexibly depending on purpose and knowledge, allowing compensation across levels.
- Anderson and Pearson's schema-theoretic view focuses on the role of schemas in anchoring new information through interaction of old and new knowledge.
- Pearson and Tierney's reading/writing model views reading as an act of composing meaning through negotiation between reader and writer.
The document discusses various theories and models of the psychology of reading. It describes the bottom-up, top-down, interactive, and metacognitive models of reading. The bottom-up model views reading as a linear process of decoding letters into words. The top-down model emphasizes using context and prior knowledge to understand text. The interactive model sees reading as using both bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously. The metacognitive model focuses on readers' thinking about their own reading processes. The document also discusses schema theory and several other specific theories and researchers that have contributed to the understanding of reading psychology.
The document summarizes research on reading skills, presenting various taxonomies and categorizations of skills. It discusses word attack skills, comprehension skills, fluency skills, and critical reading skills. It examines studies that looked at the role of lower-level word processing skills and higher-level comprehension skills in second language reading. While many models present reading skills in a hierarchical order, the document argues there is no strict hierarchy and skills are mediated by text, purpose, and content.
The Effect of Schema Theory on Reading ComprehensionDhe Dhe Sulistio
This chapter introduces the background, research question, objectives, significance, limitations, and definitions of key terms for the study. The background discusses how reading is an active mental process that involves using both direct and implicit information. Three main reading models are described: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive. The research question aims to determine the effect of schema theory on reading comprehension for fourth semester students. The objective is to know if schema theory affects reading scores. The significance is that the results could help improve teaching techniques and student motivation. The study is limited to fourth semester students in one academic year. The hypothesis is that there will be a significant difference in reading scores between students who are given schema versus those who are not.
- There are several approaches to teaching beginning readers, including teaching the alphabet, developing phonemic awareness, and using a five-step decoding system.
- Effective programs provide opportunities for children to expand their oral and written language skills, read aloud daily, learn sound-letter relationships, develop decoding strategies, write, build vocabulary, and learn comprehension strategies.
- The goal is for children to understand the building blocks of language and reading in order to become independent and proficient readers.
This document discusses various models of the reading process, including bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models. It defines reading as a complex process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. The bottom-up model views reading as decoding written symbols, while the top-down model emphasizes using context and background knowledge to construct meaning. The interactive model incorporates both bottom-up and top-down processes. Emerging models also consider the roles of schema theory, metacognition, attitudes, and the negotiation of meaning between readers and writers.
The document discusses various aspects of reading and teaching reading. It defines reading as the ability to generate meaning from text and fluent reading as reading at an appropriate rate with comprehension. It describes strategic reading as using various reading strategies to accomplish a purpose. The goal of reading is comprehension. It discusses reading as a receptive skill and how reading works using previous knowledge and deploying receptive skills. Factors that influence reading comprehension include the reader, text, and interaction between them. It also describes bottom-up, top-down, and interactive models of reading and the need for competence in both bottom-up and top-down processing. Principles of teaching reading and various reading strategies are outlined.
Assessing Short Summaries With Human Judgments Procedure And Latent Semantic ...Linda Garcia
This document discusses latent semantic analysis (LSA), a method for representing word meanings and assessing text coherence. LSA analyzes word contexts to estimate semantic similarities between linguistic units like sentences and paragraphs. Research has found LSA scores correlate highly with human assessments of text and summary coherence and quality. The study presented here further tests LSA's ability to assess very short (50-word) summaries of narrative and expository texts, comparing LSA similarity measures to ratings from human experts. Results provide support for using LSA and human judgments together in an automated text assessment tool, though correlations were higher for narrative texts and LSA aligned more with human content ratings than coherence ratings.
This document defines and provides examples of various literary devices and elements. It discusses devices such as allusion, foreshadowing, anagrams, analogy, simile, metaphor, personification, alliteration, paradox, and idioms. For each device, it provides a definition and one or more examples from literature to illustrate how authors use these techniques to add depth, imagery, and interest to their writing.
The document discusses different types of speeches, including speeches to inform, persuade, and for special occasions. A speech to inform aims to provide clarity and understanding on non-controversial topics, and can take the form of an explanation/demonstration, description, or definition. A speech to persuade attempts to influence the audience's attitudes and behaviors by clearly stating a proposition, such as a statement of fact, value judgment, or policy recommendation. Speeches for special occasions, like courtesy speeches, commemoration speeches, and speeches for events like introductions, farewells, and dedications, aim to create goodwill, inspire, or entertain through brevity and the sharing of interesting facts.
The document discusses the differences between formal/informal and objective/subjective essays. A formal essay uses sophisticated vocabulary and third person point of view to objectively discuss important information in a serious tone. An informal essay is more casual and personal, discussing everyday topics from a first person perspective in a friendly tone.
Intonation is the variation in spoken pitch and serves various functions such as conveying emotion and attitude. It also signals whether an utterance is a statement or question. Intonation helps regulate conversational interactions. Falling intonation communicates certainty and conviction, while rising intonation conveys uncertainty and incompleteness as it is used for hesitation and doubt. Examples demonstrate the difference between statements with falling intonation and questions with rising intonation.
The different use and negative effects of computers in education.
P.S. Guys kindly click like if the article is helpful and IF you're going to download the slides/presentation.Thank you.
This are the multiple, manifest and latent Functions of Schools. (Social Dimension)
P.S. Guys kindly click like if the article is helpful and IF you're going to download the slides/presentation.Thank you.
Learning to live together is one of the "Four Pillars of Education" the other three are: "Learning to Know, Learning to Do and Learning to Be".
P.S. Guys kindly click like if the article is helpful and IF you're going to download the slides/presentation.Thank you.
Early Korean literature was heavily influenced by Shamanism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. It began as an oral tradition and emphasized moral values like loyalty, filial piety, and respect. The first Korean writings were poems called hyangga during the Shilla Kingdom. Literature continued to develop over the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties, with the creation of hangul allowing for a broader range of works and audiences. Major genres included shijo poetry, p'ansori oral epics, and fiction written in both Chinese and hangul that increasingly featured common people.
Open Source and AI - ByWater Closing Keynote Presentation.pdfJessica Zairo
ByWater Solutions, a leader in open-source library software, will discuss the future of open-source AI Models and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAGs). Discover how these cutting-edge technologies can transform information access and management in special libraries. Dive into the open-source world, where transparency and collaboration drive innovation, and learn how these can enhance the precision and efficiency of information retrieval.
This session will highlight practical applications and showcase how open-source solutions can empower your library's growth.
Life of Ah Gong and Ah Kim ~ A Story with Life Lessons (Hokkien, English & Ch...OH TEIK BIN
A PowerPoint Presentation of a fictitious story that imparts Life Lessons on loving-kindness, virtue, compassion and wisdom.
The texts are in Romanized Hokkien, English and Chinese.
For the Video Presentation with audio narration in Hokkien, please check out the Link:
https://vimeo.com/manage/videos/987932748
APM event held on 9 July in Bristol.
Speaker: Roy Millard
The SWWE Regional Network were very pleased to welcome back to Bristol Roy Millard, of APM’s Assurance Interest Group on 9 July 2024, to talk about project reviews and hopefully answer all your questions.
Roy outlined his extensive career and his experience in setting up the APM’s Assurance Specific Interest Group, as they were known then.
Using Mentimeter, he asked a number of questions of the audience about their experience of project reviews and what they wanted to know.
Roy discussed what a project review was and examined a number of definitions, including APM’s Bok: “Project reviews take place throughout the project life cycle to check the likely or actual achievement of the objectives specified in the project management plan”
Why do we do project reviews? Different stakeholders will have different views about this, but usually it is about providing confidence that the project will deliver the expected outputs and benefits, that it is under control.
There are many types of project reviews, including peer reviews, internal audit, National Audit Office, IPA, etc.
Roy discussed the principles behind the Three Lines of Defence Model:, First line looks at management controls, policies, procedures, Second line at compliance, such as Gate reviews, QA, to check that controls are being followed, and third Line is independent external reviews for the organisations Board, such as Internal Audit or NAO audit.
Factors which affect project reviews include the scope, level of independence, customer of the review, team composition and time.
Project Audits are a special type of project review. They are generally more independent, formal with clear processes and audit trails, with a greater emphasis on compliance. Project reviews are generally more flexible and informal, but should be evidence based and have some level of independence.
Roy looked at 2 examples of where reviews went wrong, London Underground Sub-Surface Upgrade signalling contract, and London’s Garden Bridge. The former had poor 3 lines of defence, no internal audit and weak procurement skills, the latter was a Boris Johnson vanity project with no proper governance due to Johnson’s pressure and interference.
Roy discussed the principles of assurance reviews from APM’s Guide to Integrated Assurance (Free to Members), which include: independence, accountability, risk based, and impact, etc
Human factors are important in project reviews. The skills and knowledge of the review team, building trust with the project team to avoid defensiveness, body language, and team dynamics, which can only be assessed face to face, active listening, flexibility and objectively.
Click here for further content: https://www.apm.org.uk/news/a-beginner-s-guide-to-project-reviews-everything-you-wanted-to-know-but-were-too-afraid-to-ask/
How To Sell Hamster Kombat Coin In Pre-marketSikandar Ali
How To Sell Hamster Kombat Coin In Pre Market
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How To Sell Hamster Kombat Coin In Pre Market
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How To Sell Hamster Kombat Coin In Pre Market
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PRESS RELEASE - UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, JULY 16, 2024.pdfnservice241
The University of Ghana has launched a new vision and strategic plan, which will focus on transforming lives and societies through unparalleled scholarship, innovation, and result-oriented discoveries.
How to Make a Field Storable in Odoo 17 - Odoo SlidesCeline George
Let’s discuss about how to make a field in Odoo model as a storable. For that, a module for College management has been created in which there is a model to store the the Student details.
How to Make a Field Storable in Odoo 17 - Odoo Slides
Reading Models and Schema Theory
2. What is a Reading Model?
IntroductionIntroduction
In the last 40 years reading researchers have been
studying the link between the reading process (what
goes on in the brain) and how to teach reading.
Depending on their interpretation of the reading
process, they have developed a model of reading.
3. Definition
A reading model is a graphic attempt “to depict how
an individual perceives a word, processes a clause,
and comprehends a text.” (Singer and Ruddell 1985)
Kinds
Here are some kinds of reading models.
Although there are many models of reading, reading
researchers tend to classify them into three kinds.
4. A. Top-downA. Top-down
Introduction
Top-down reading models suggest that processing of a
text begins in the mind of the readers with:
*meaning-driven processes, or
*an assumption about the meaning of a text.
From this perspective, readers identify letters and
words only to confirm their assumptions about the
meaning of the text. (Dechant 1991)
5. Proponents
Here are some proponents of the top-down reading
model:
Goodman, K. 1985
Smith, F. 1994
The proponents generally agree that :
*comprehension is the basis for decoding skills, not a
singular result, and
*meaning is brought to print, not derived from print.
6. Definition
A top-down reading model is a reading model that:
*emphasizes what the reader brings to the text
*says reading is driven by meaning, and
*proceeds from whole to part.
Also known as:
*inside-out model
*concept-driven model
*whole to part model
7. Discussion
Here are the views of some researchers about the top-down
reading model:
Frank Smith, a journalist turned reading researcher:
*Reading is not decoding written language to spoken language.
*Reading does not involve the processing of each letter and
each word.
*Reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print, not
extracting meaning from print. (McCormick, T. 1988)
8. Kenneth S. Goodman, reading specialist at the University of
Arizona:
* “...the goal of reading is constructing meaning in response to
text...It requires interactive use of grapho-phonic, syntactic, and
semantic cues to construct meaning.” (Goodman, K. 1981).
* Although Goodman is often referred to as a leading advocate
of the top-down approach, his model by his own admission is
interactive, “...it is one which uses print as input and has
meaning as output. But the reader provides input too, and the
reader, interacting with text, is selective in using just as little of
the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning.” (
Goodman, K. 1981)
9. DID YOU KNOW?DID YOU KNOW?
A widely accepted educational philosophy that
utilizes a top-down approach to reading is called
whole language.
10. Features
Here are some features of a top-down approach to reading (Gove 1983):
Readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each
word.
Readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized
words.
Reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery
of letters, letter/sound relationships, and words.
Reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a
series of word-recognition skills.
The primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences,
paragraphs, and whole selections.
The most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of
information gained through reading.
11. B. Bottom-upB. Bottom-up
IntroductionIntroduction
A bottom-up reading model emphasizes a single-A bottom-up reading model emphasizes a single-
direction, part-to-whole processing of a text.direction, part-to-whole processing of a text.
In the beginning stages it gives little emphasis to theIn the beginning stages it gives little emphasis to the
influences of the reader's world knowledge,influences of the reader's world knowledge, contextualcontextual
information, and other higher-order processinginformation, and other higher-order processing
strategies. (strategies. (Dechant 1991Dechant 1991).).
12. Definition
A bottom-up reading model is a reading model that
*emphasizes the written or printed text
*says reading is driven by a process that results in
meaning (or, in other words, reading is driven by
text), and
*proceeds from part to whole.
Also known as:
*part to whole model
13. Proponents
Here are some proponents of the bottom-up reading
model:
Flesch 1955
Gough 1985
LaBerge and Samuels 1985
14. Discussion
Emerald Dechant:
“Bottom-up models operate on the principle that the written text is
hierarchically organized (i.e., on the grapho-phonic, phonemic, syllabic,
morphemic, word, and sentence levels) and that the reader first processes
the smallest linguistic unit, gradually compiling the smaller units to decipher
and comprehend the higher units (e.g., sentence syntax).” (Dechant 1991)
Charles Fries:
The reader must learn to transfer from the auditory signs for language
signals...to a set of visual signs for the same signals. (Fries 1962)
The reader must learn to automatically respond to the visual patterns. The
cumulative comprehension of the meanings signaled then enable the reader
to supply those portions of the signals which are not in the graphic
representations themselves. (Fries 1962)
Learning to read...means developing a considerable range of habitual
responses to a specific set of patterns of graphic shapes. (Fries 1962)
15. DID YOU KNOW?DID YOU KNOW?
A widely accepted instructional programinstructional program that
incorporates several bottom-up principles is
the phonic approach to readingphonic approach to reading.
16. Features
Here are some features of a bottom-up approach to
reading:
Bottom-up advocates believe the reader needs to
identify letter features
link these features to recognize letters
combine letters to recognize spelling patterns
link spelling patterns to recognize words, and
then proceed to sentence, paragraph and text-level
processing.
17. C. Interactive
Introduction
An interactive reading model attempts to combine the
valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models. It
attempts to take into account the strong points of the
bottom-up and top-down models, and tries to avoid the
criticisms leveled against each, making it one of the
most promising approaches to the theory of reading
today. (McCormick, T. 1988)
18. Definition
An interactive reading model is a reading model that
recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and top-down
processes simultaneously throughout the reading
process.
Proponents
Here are some proponents of the interactive reading
model:
Rumelhart, D. 1985
Barr, Sadow, and Blachowicz 1990
Ruddell and Speaker 1985
19. Discussion
Here are the views of some researchers about the interactive
reading model:
Emerald Dechant:
The interactive model suggests that the reader constructs
meaning by the selective use of information from all sources
of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax,
semantics) without adherence to any one set order. The
reader simultaneously uses all levels of processing even
though one source of meaning can be primary at a given
time. (Dechant 1991)
20. Kenneth Goodman:
An interactive model is one which uses print as input and has
meaning as output. But the reader provides input, too, and
the reader, interacting with the text, is selective in using just
as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct
meaning. (Goodman, K. 1981)
David E. Rumelhart:
Reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. It is a
process which bridges and blurs these two traditional
distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make
use of sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic
information to accomplish the task. These various sources of
information appear to interact in many complex ways during
the process of reading (Rumelhart, D. 1985).
21. What is Schema Theory?
Linguists, cognitive psychologists, and psycholinguists have used
the concept of schema (plural: schemata) to understand the
interaction of key factors affecting the comprehension process.
Simply put, schema theory states that all knowledge is
organized into units. Within these units of knowledge, or
schemata, is stored information.
A schema, then, is a generalized description or a conceptual
system for understanding knowledge-how knowledge is
represented and how it is used.
22. Schemas clearly affect our recall of events.
Schemas also affect our ability to learn things.
According to this theory, schemata represent knowledge about
concepts: objects and the relationships they have with other
objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and
sequences of actions.
The importance of schema theory to reading comprehension
also lies in how the reader uses schemata. This issue has not yet
been resolved by research, although investigators agree that
some mechanism activates just those schemata most relevant to
the reader's task.