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history, philosophy, and pr actice of yoga
r sovik • a balayogi • bhavanani
Historical background, antecedents, and
development of the eight-limbed path
Yoga is both a process and a goal. In this respect, it
is a moksha shastra, a teaching (shastra) leading to
gradual freedom (moksha) from the various forms of
human suffering. The word yoga is derived from the
Sanskrit verb root yuj, which means “to yoke, unite,
or bring together.” Yoga can be defined both as the
effort to restore harmony within the body–mind
complex and as the effort to reunite the individual human spirit with its essential nature (Schweig,
2007). Although the practice of yoga does not exclude
any religion, creed, or race, it is helpful to recognize
that its teachings have sprung from the spiritual soil
of ancient India and even now bear the title in India
of sanatana dharma, “eternal way” (see Box 2.1).
Although yoga has been practiced in India since
well before recorded history, it was in approximately
the second century bce that the seminal figure
Patanjali united many already-existing practices and
Box 2.1 Yoga briely deined
What is yoga?
• Mastery of the roaming tendencies of the mind – Yoga
Sutras (1.2)
• Skillful, dispassionate action – Bhagavad Gita (2.50)
• Equanimity of mind – Bhagavad Gita (2.48)
• A skillful and subtle process of calming the mind – Yoga
Vashistha (3.9.32)
• Dissociation from the painful union with suffering – Bhagavad
Gita (6.23)
• Unity of breath, mind, and senses, and the abandonment of
distracting thought – Maitri Upanishad (6.25)
• Union of the individual self (jivatma) with the Universal Self
(paramatma) – Yoga Yajnavalkya (1.44)
writings into a unified text known as the Yoga Sutras.
Patanjali’s masterful Sanskrit work contains a series
of 195 terse aphorisms (sutras, or “threads”) that
convey the most essential ideas of yoga theory and
practice. These sutras present the essence of yoga in
the form of eight divisions, or limbs (ashtanga yoga)
(Bryant, 2009). The first five limbs of this system are
termed “external” because they address relationships
with the world and with the body, breath, and senses.
The “internal,” or “mental,” rungs of yoga, the last
three of the eight limbs, comprise three increasingly
refined stages of concentration.
At the heart of Patanjali’s text is the message that
every human being is by nature balanced and whole
(Gitananda, 1999). Yoga is a method for aligning
oneself with this sense of inner balance. In the process, multiple levels of human experience—body,
breath, and mind—are given thorough attention, and
the mind is gradually freed for deeper concentration
and reflection.
Many modern practitioners have become interested
in yoga as a means for improving health. Patanjali
recognized imbalances in health as a significant
obstacle to personal progress (Aranya, 1983) and
approached the task of promoting good health in
two ways: by removing obstacles that block the path
to health and by promoting alignment with healing
forces within. As we shall see, these two strategies
are manifested in a wide variety of approaches to
self-management.
It is important to recognize that the modern, almost
exclusive, identification of yoga with physical exercise is just that—a recent development. As Patanjali
illustrates, yoga practices in earlier times embodied
a thoroughly integrated approach. They combined
in one system the goals of improved health,
self-discovery, and spiritual self-understanding.
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Major historical time frames
Vedic period (circa 1500–600 BCE)
In the period before written texts, teachings were
transmitted orally from teacher (guru) to disciple
(shishya). The earliest of these teachings are found
today in four compilations: the Rig Veda, the Yajur
Veda, the Sama Veda, and the Atharva Veda. The age
of these works has been a matter of some uncertainty
(Bhavanani, 2010). It is estimated that although the
oral tradition extends far back into prehistory, the
Vedas as they are organized today date from circa
1500 bce, with later additions extending to 600 bce
(Panikkar, 1977). Each Veda (from the root vid, “to
know”) consists of four parts. The Samhitas, collections of hymns used in Vedic rituals, form the oldest
portion. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas comment
on and expand the Samhitas, while the Upanishads
form the final portion of the texts. The Vedas promote harmonious relationships with nature, appeal
for peace in human interactions, petition for health
and protection, and most importantly, bring awareness to the meditative dimensions of human life.
Post-Vedic era (circa 600 to 100 BCE)
In the period following the compilation of the Vedas,
an enormous collection of teachings was recorded
and made available for practice and study. Twelve
Upanishads and their comprehensive interpretation,
the Brahma Sutras, began the shift away from Vedic
rituals to the highly personalized yogic goals of selfdevelopment, balanced living, and Self-realization. A
diverse literature emerged that included two epic texts,
the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the latter’s wellknown quintessence, the Bhagavad Gita. Yoga practices
were codified in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (c. 200–100
bce), and Patanjali’s writing was accompanied by an
authoritative commentary added by the sage Vyasa.
One hundred BCE and through the
seventeenth century CE
During the common era, devotional works, histories,
and teachings of yogic adepts all provided a resource
for practicing yogis. The renowned philosopher
Shankaracharya (eighth century ce) had a profound
influence on the thought of this period. He revived
the doctrine of advaita vedanta, nondualism, and
wrote authoritative commentaries on the Bhagavad
Gita, the Brahma Sutras, and 10 major Upanishads.
During this period, many types of yoga emerged
from within the diverse traditions of India. Georg
Feuerstein (2003) has listed 40 types of yoga ranging
across a broad array of practice approaches. Among
these, the three main ones surviving into the modern
age are the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali; the hatha yoga
teachings of the Natha sect of yogis (in particular, a
fifteenth-century work by Svatmarama, the Hatha
Yoga Pradipika, and a seventeenth-century work of
Gheranda, the Gheranda Samhita); and the teachings
of the Bhagavad Gita.
Modern era
In the modern period, yoga and its teachings traveled from East to West, a phenomenon embodied first
by the arrival of Swami Vivekananda in the United
States in 1893. Drawing on the teachings of the
Bhagavad Gita, he wrote on each of the four paths
found there: raja yoga (meditation), karma yoga
(selfless action), bhakti yoga (devotion), and jnana
yoga (metaphysics). In the early twentieth century,
Swami Kuvalayananda of the Kaivalyadhama Yoga
Institute, as well as Yogendraji of the Yoga Institute in
Mumbai, initiated systematic practice and research
in yoga. Since then, various traditions have spread
worldwide. These include teachings set in motion
by T. Krishnamacharya (who inspired well-known
practitioners of yoga such as B. K. S. Iyengar, T. K. V.
Desikachar, and Pattabhi Jois); Swami Shivananda
Sarasvati (and his disciples Swamis Satyananda,
Vishnudevananda, and Satchitananda); the Himalayan tradition (Swami Rama, Pandit Tigunait, and
Swami Veda Bharati); the Kundalini Yoga tradition (Yogi Bhajan); the Self-Realization Fellowship
(Swami Yogananda); and the Rishiculture of Swami
Gitananda Giri (Yogacharini Meenakshi Devi
Bhavanani). Yoga practitioners and scientists such
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history, philosophy, and pr actice of yoga
as H. R. Nagendra and R. Nagarathna of S-VYASA
(Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana)
University in Bangalore continued the early efforts
of Swami Kuvalayananda with a special emphasis
on yoga as therapy. Since 2002, Swami Ramdev has
popularized yoga throughout India as well as initiating research to study its effectiveness in health care.
Other recent schools of practice are listed in the
final part of this chapter. Notably, while yoga teachings have been derived from many written sources, it
is the presence of a living lineage of teachers (a guruparampara) that provides assurance that a particular
teaching is genuine.
Foundations of yoga practice
In the initial stages of yoga study, most students
focus on postures (asana), voluntary regulation of
the breath (pranayama), and relaxation skills (pratyahara). Integrated with contemplation of the yamas
and niyamas (described below), these form the foundation for the development of an effective practice.
However, it is helpful to broaden the focus here in
order to provide a philosophical context and illustrate the manner in which yoga techniques expand
into daily life. Yoga is indeed a way of life, an experiential investigation into human nature (Bhavanani,
2013). (See Table 2.1.)
The essence of yoga is self-observation. It is through
self-observation, for example, that the refinement of
yoga postures occurs. In the course of asana work,
self-observation brings with it a sense of psychological distance from the body—a perception that there
is space between the witnessing mind and the movements and alignment of the physical self. A unique
sense of objectivity develops—an awareness that the
observer, the process of observation (carried out in
the mind), and the object being observed (the body
and its movements) are distinct parts of an integrated
inner experience. This, in turn, leads to a deep sense
of physical self-mastery and the feeling that one’s
body has become “like the wide expanse of the sky”
(ananta samapatti) (Aranya, 1983, p. 229).
Table 2.1 The eight limbs of Yoga
AshtangaYoga — the eight limbs
1 Yama
Ahimsa
Satya
Asteya
Brahmacharya
Aparigraha
Restraints
Non-harming
Truthfulness
Non-stealing
Control of lifestyle
Non-possessiveness
2 Niyama
Shaucha
Santosha
Tapas
Svadhyaya
ishvara pranidhana
Observances
Purity
Contentment
Self-discipline
Self-study
Trustful surrender
3
4
5
6
7
8
Steady posture
Expansion of vital energy
Sensory withdrawal
Concentration
Meditation
Self-realization
Asana
Pranayama
Pratyahara
Dharana
Dhyana
Samadhi
A similar but more subtle process occurs when
the breath becomes the object of attention. In this
regard it is often declared that without the breath
there is no yoga. Observation of the breath calms
emotional reactivity, heightens awareness of the
energetic dimensions of human life, and awakens
the witnessing mind. Breath awareness begins with
the continuous awareness of the flow of exhalation
and inhalation. Each exhalation provides a pleasant
sensation of cleansing, while each inhalation offers
an equally pleasant sense of nourishment. Attention
to these streams of air results in the development of
effortless, relaxed breathing.
The most refined development of self-observation
occurs in meditation. There, the process of
witnessing lies entirely within the mind itself. The
ever-present stream of thought, emotions, memories, sensations, and states of consciousness forms an
object of attention. Gradually, as the observation of
the mind is steadied through concentration, the individual’s identity as the inner witness is revealed and
consciousness rests within itself (Tigunait, 2014).
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The eight limbs of yoga
The ashtanga (“eight-limbed”) yoga system of
Patanjali, as described in the Yoga Sutras, provides
the discipline, guidance, and vision necessary for an
understanding of yoga. Although the first five limbs
form steps leading to meditation, practitioners are
not expected to perfect these before proceeding on.
Learning yoga is an organic process, and the various
practices of yoga mutually clarify and support one
another until the higher limbs can be achieved.
The first two limbs of practice consist of strategies devoted to self-regulation. They begin with the
yamas, or “restraints,” a list of five approaches (see
Table 2.2) for controlling negative habit patterns that
diffuse energy in the individual and foster human
discord. The yamas offer a concise approach to
self-inspection. By identifying negative tendencies
and fostering positive ones, practitioners can recognize underlying motivations that disrupt behavior.
Thus, while at one level these restraints supply a set
of ethical disciplines for practice, at a deeper level
they are a tool for self-understanding, enabling practitioners to recognize the excessive attractions and
aversions that so easily become ingrained in daily life.
The second rung of the ashtanga system is a list of
observances (niyamas)—positive habit patterns
that guide yoga practice. These principles form a
framework that can be embraced at beginning levels as well as more advanced ones. For example,
beginning students learn such techniques as nasal
irrigation. Advancing students address purification of the mind. The practices associated with the
five observances are multi-dimensional. Svadhyaya
(self-study), for example, includes not only efforts
Table 2.2 Forms of yoga
Ashtanga yoga
The eight-limbed system outlined by Patanjali and forming the basis for all classic approaches
to Yoga practice
Hatha yoga
The initial stages of ashtanga yoga practice emphasizing right attitudes, asana, breath work, and relaxation
Raja yoga
The meditative stages of ashtanga yoga leading from resting the senses to deep states of relaxation,
concentration and meditation
Karma yoga
A yogic path focusing on sellessness and non-attachment. A path that accompanies all other
disciplines of practice
Bhakti yoga
A devotional path, often demonstrated through chant, poetry, ritual, pilgrimage and expressions
of love for the Ininite
Jnana yoga
A path dedicated to philosophical clarity and self-observation. This approach integrates self-analysis
and meditation
Tantra yoga
A highly integrated, holistic path; the umbrella for much of the practice now taught in yoga classes and
depicted in yoga texts
Mantra yoga
An approach emphasizing the use of internal mantric sounds for mental support and the reinement
of awareness
Kundalini yoga
A path dedicated to arousing dormant spiritual energy (kundalini) and directing it upward along the spinal axis
Laya yoga
A method contributing to kundalini awakening through the systematic integration of lower energies
into higher ones
Svara yoga
An advanced yoga practice dedicated to the study of pranic rhythms and internal paths of energy
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to practice introspection but also the repetition of
mantras, contemplation of philosophical ideals, and
attention to teachings of accomplished teachers.
The remaining six rungs in the ashtanga system are
composed of increasingly refined disciplines leading
toward inner stillness. Patanjali famously defines
the culmination of asana work as a posture that has
become “steady and comfortable” (Bryant, 2009,
p. 283). Breathing reaches its apex when it becomes a
means for revealing inner awareness. And the senses,
paradoxically, become a source of insight when they
can be turned away from their objects and rested.
Each of these stages of practice is itself a goal of
yoga—each contributing to the awakening of a state
of consciousness that transcends normal awareness.
The processes of yoga culminate in freedom from
the wandering tendencies of the mind (Tigunait,
2014). This is achieved through the implementation of two interwoven practices: concentration and
non-attachment. Together these lead an aspirant to
self-mastery. Patanjali teaches that concentration
practice bears fruit when it is continued over time
and without interruption. But concentration is not,
in this context, the result of labored attention. It is
the outcome of resting awareness in a supportive
focus, an alambana, and returning to that focus with
regularity. With modest effort, periods of concentration become a natural part of daily life.
The companion to concentration, vairagya, or
non-attachment, is a concept that has proved puzzling for Western students. In the West, attachment
is generally considered to be a desirable thing, an
indication of love and respect. These virtues, love
and respect, are equally valued in yoga. But in yoga
the term “attachment” is unrelated to qualities of
endearment. Attachment is seen as an imbalance, a
craving leading to sickness or to mental distraction.
Non-attachment is its opposite, a sense of equanimity
and emotional balance.
The highest state of meditation, and the eighth rung of
the ashtanga system, is termed samadhi. It is described
as a state of mental purity arising from one-pointed
attention. In that state, consciousness is revealed as
something more than a quality of mind. Consciousness is the nature of one’s being (Aranya, 1983).
The vedantic model of the self
Yoga is an inward journey, a centering movement
within the human personality. The fifteenth-century
text Vedantasara (The Essence of Vedanta), written
by Sadananda, a monk in the Shankaracharya order,
describes five layerings of human experience that
surround the essential Self (Nikhilananda, 1931). These
layerings act as covers, or sheaths (koshas), that veil
pure consciousness. As yoga practice proceeds, each
of these layers is gradually integrated and transcended.
The physical sheath, or anatomical level
of existence (annamaya kosha)
The body is the most visible aspect of personality. It is
the form consisting of food (anna), through which
identity first shows itself. Despite the body’s substantial appearance it experiences continual change,
shaped by four instinctive drives: the urges for food,
sex, sleep, and self-preservation. Thus, working with
diet, developing healthy sleep patterns, and cultivating periods of physical rest all function as important
yogic lifestyle factors.
Six varieties of cleansing practices (shat kriyas) assist
in maintaining physical health and well-being. They
play an important role in the elimination of physical
wastes (mala shuddhi) as well as the elimination of
wastes accumulating at more subtle levels of functioning (nadi shuddhi). These six practices include
dhauti (gastric cleansings), basti (colonic cleansings),
neti (nasal cleansings), nauli (abdominal cleansings),
trataka (gazing), and kapalabhati (cleansing of the
energies of the skull) (Bhatt, 2004). It is important to
remember that the shat kriyas are not simply physical cleansing techniques. They also utilize body
mechanics to remove emotional and mental blockages. In the process of detoxifying, they allow positive, healing energies to flow. Thus, they serve as
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powerful synergists in the purification, activation,
and regeneration of the body–mind.
Yoga postures, the focus of the third of Patanjali’s
eight limbs, are by far the most widely practiced
techniques for managing the annamaya kosha.
Practice of asana has evolved at a fast pace over the
last half-century under the influence of a variety of
teaching styles. Nonetheless, the core elements of
posture work remain the same: sequenced variations
of movement (vinyasa krama) leading to stillness in
a prescribed pose, coordination of physical movements with the flow of the breath, and continuous
mindfulness of breath and body. (See Box 2.2.)
Box 2.2 Asana – a functional classiication
•
•
Cultural postures:
• postures for health and well-being, such as:
• bhujangasana (cobra posture)
• shalabasana (locust posture)
• dhanurasana (bow posture)
Contemplative postures:
• postures for meditation, such as:
• padmasana (lotus posture)
• sukhasana (comfortable posture)
• postures for relaxation, such as:
• shavasana (corpse posture)
• makarasana (crocodile posture)
The sheath of vital energy, or physiological
level of existence (pranamaya kosha)
Like iron filings influenced by a magnetic field, the
body is said to be formed along lines of internal
energy (prana). The sheath consisting of this energy
is internal to the physical body and is more subtle.
It is often described as the interface between the
body and mind—a force that holds the two together,
thus sustaining and regulating life. Prana is not
simply mechanical energy but a force that animates
both body and mind. Every movement and thought
is a demonstration of its presence. Access to the
pranamaya kosha is through the breath, and its study
is divided into two parts: breath training, which
leads to full understanding of the basic mechanisms
of breathing, and pranayama, the regulation and
expansion of prana. (See Box 2.3.)
The classical techniques of pranayama are powerful elements of practice and are represented in the
fourth of Patanjali’s eight limbs. Vyasa, Patanjali’s
commentator, has avowed that “there is no austerity superior to pranayama; it removes impurities and
makes the light of knowledge shine” (Aranya, 1983,
p. 243). Practice of pranayama magnifies awareness
of the subtle dimensions of energy. For example, nadi
shodana, an important practice of pranayama, brings
attention to the shifting patterns of breath—the
Box 2.3 Classical pranayama
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Surya bhedana – sun-piercing breath
Ujjayi – the victorious breath
Sitkari – hissing breath
Sitali – beak tongue breath
Bhastrika – bellows breath
Bhramari – bee-sounding breath
Murccha – swooning breath
Plavini – loating breath
nasal cycle—flowing in the two nostrils. Throughout the day and night, the flow of breath in the nostrils shifts from one side to the other (Bhavanani,
2007). Regulation of this cycle is thought to have
positive effects on mood and on various aspects of
daily functioning.
The flow of pranic energy is also regulated by the
use of mudras and bandhas, neuromuscular seals
and locks respectively. Hatha yoga mudras facilitate conscious control of energy by directing it to
flow along the lines of energy channels (nadis).
There are numerous gestures using the hands, feet,
body, and head that enable conscious regulation of
these psychophysical energies. In addition, three
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locks, the bandhas–jalandhara (jugular), uddiyana
(abdominal), and mula (anal)—accompany the
practice of certain pranayama techniques, preventing the uncontrolled elevation of pressure in the
thoraco-abdomino-pelvic cavities. These locks are of
great spiritual value also, since they help in facilitating the flow of energy along the spinal column and
thus deepening meditation.
The conscious mind, or the psychological
level of existence (manomaya kosha)
Subtler than the breath is the conscious mind
(manas). It is the mental screen on which inner experience is projected. The manomaya kosha receives
sense impressions from the outer world. It also acts
as the coordinator of outer actions, making it possible to manipulate the world with one’s hands, move
about with one’s feet, and communicate through the
power of speech. It is the manomaya kosha that makes
mental associations, brings memories to awareness,
carries out thought processes, and presents objects
of imagination to the self for its enjoyment. Thus,
much of what we think of as human experience takes
place on the screen of the conscious mind.
However, the functioning of this layer of the self is
limited. For the most part, operation of the mind at
this level is automatic and habitual. It is unable to
arrive at a sense of value. Using the everyday mind
we may be able to categorize events in the world with
great sophistication, but we will not be able to determine their worth.
The seat of wisdom and discernment,
or the intellectual level of existence
(vijnanamaya kosha)
The short verb root “vi-jna,” from which the name
of the next kosha is derived, means “to discern, to
know rightly, to understand.” As awareness deepens through concentration, it is possible to acquire
a clearer and more accurate vision of one’s self and
one’s relationships with the world. The practice of
yoga, and in particular the practice of Patanjali’s
first two limbs, helps to establish alignment with
this vision. At the level of the vijnanamaya kosha it is
not unusual to sense a subtle pulling away from the
nervous excitement of the conscious mind toward a
deeper and more peaceful state of awareness.
A distinct feature of yoga is the recognition that
the human mind is an inner instrument. The mind
provides experience (bhoga), as well as the peaceful
revelation of consciousness (apavarga). The aspect of
mind capable of discerning such states of consciousness is termed the buddhi, which may be translated
as “awareness.” It is the functioning of the buddhi
that is awakened through yoga relaxation and meditation methods. Through these practices, awareness
is turned back upon itself, expanding, as we have
seen, from a state of obscurity to one in which it witnesses body, breath, and everyday mental life. This
leads, finally, to a state of “awareness of awareness
itself” (Gitananda, 1976).
The sheath of bliss, or the universal level
of existence (anandamaya kosha)
Enshrouded by the previous four coverings is the
sheath named after the Sanskrit word for “rapture”
or “bliss”: ananda. It is the most-subtle aspect of personality and represents a state of consciousness well
beyond the distractions of daily life. This is described
as blissful because when meditation has progressed
to a certain level of subtlety, the mind is said to
reflect a sense of deep-seated and spontaneous joy or
bliss (Nikhilananda, 1931).
Language can become an obstacle to experience at
this stage. That fact has led to the practice of silence,
which makes it possible to explore parts of experience that otherwise pass unacknowledged and
unobserved. With this in mind, asana classes are
often taught without a musical backdrop, instructions are carefully presented but kept to a minimum,
and attention is shepherded to the quiet activity of
self-observation (Anderson & Sovik, 2000).
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The core of one’s being (atman)
The core of inner life is said to be beyond the reach
of thought and words, yet it has been depicted and
praised in many yogic texts. In the Bhagavad Gita, for
example, it is said to be self-illuminating, the source
of joy, and a state “unshaken even by heavy suffering”
(Schweig, 2007, p. 97). In the Katha Upanishad it is
described as “the life force that animates everything”
(Tigunait, 2008, p. 129). And in the Mundaka Upanishad it is said that “the Self pervades the entire external and internal world … it is perfect and unalloyed”
(Swami Rama, 1990, p. 83). Such examples reaffirm
that the nature of yoga is to uncover an enduring core
of health, peace, and well-being.
The practice of tantra yoga
Much of what is currently practiced in yoga classrooms, and described in contemporary yoga texts,
is derived from the tantric tradition of yoga. Among
tantra’s central tenets is the notion that the body is
not, as taught by more ascetical schools, an obstacle on the path to enlightenment (Goswami, 1999,
p. xiii). In contrast with visions of spirituality that
emphasize renunciation of life, early tantric adepts
cultivated a positive physical awareness that later
served as the source for the development of hatha
yoga. The body was conceived of as an instrument
for self-realization, and thus fully integrated into
spiritual practice.
Tantra grew out of the principle that all the dimensions of life—the creative cycles of nature, the interplay of wildlife, the shifting climate, the powerful
forces of galactic energies, the birth and sustenance
of living beings, and the centrality of consciousness
itself—are interconnected. To find one’s place in
this broad network of life experience one must look
within and with an eye to the whole.
The interplay between mind and body is an example of the holistic nature of life. The understanding that mind and body influence each other and
are not separable is increasingly permeating contemporary culture. For healing to take place in the
functioning of one, it is necessary to seek balance
and healing in the other.
Further, the forces that govern the operation of
the universe are the same forces that govern the
functioning of the individual. This is expressed in a
well-known Sanskrit axiom, yatha brahmande tatha
pindande—“that same reality which exists outside us as
the macrocosm is present within us, the microcosm.”
The essence of tantra is self-transformation. Practitioners seek to make changes within themselves
in order to establish health, bring about a sense of
self-empowerment, and awaken spiritual well-being.
To do this, a practitioner of tantra makes use of energies already available (prana) to awaken energy lying
dormant and unexpressed within (kundalini). While
this is often described as “the awakening of kundalini,” it might equally be articulated as the awakening
of human potential and growth.
Among the methods used to cultivate such an awakening are many of the very tools we have previously
encountered. Physical yoga (asana), pranayama
exercises, sense withdrawal, concentration, contemplation and meditation all play central roles in the
tantric model of practice. Indeed, both Patanjali and
Shankaracharya were themselves fully acquainted
with the tantric tradition. However, in addition to
these, tantra integrates a wide variety of other practices, adding such tools as devotional expression,
mantra science, ritual, and even the use of traditional
herbs into the broad picture of yoga methodology.
It is perhaps necessary to mention that tantra has
developed an association with sexual practices in
some settings. Tantra, while not ignorant of sexual
life, is far from interested in its mindless pursuit.
Tantra offers a comprehensive vision of all dimensions of human life and spirituality.
The architecture of tantric practice
The tantric vision of human personality is organized around the alignment and distribution of inner
energies. The central axis of these energies lies along
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the spinal column. Thus, the arms and legs serve as
appendages, while the spinal column acts as the primary locus of attention. Tributaries of the central
column of energy branch out to the complete body–
mind complex. Neither the streams of energy (nadis)
within the body nor the energies themselves can be
seen. They act as subtle components of human functioning, experienced through yoga practice.
AQ1
Where nadis, which are energy streams, intersect,
they serve as the underlying support for physical
structures and for glandular functioning. For example, marma sthanas, points of intersection, lie at the
core of many joints. There they may become the
focus of massage therapy, the center of attention in a
series of yoga postures, or a locus of meditative concentration. (See Fig. 2.1 on p. xxx.)
The intersection of energies along the spine is of primary importance. These intersections are termed
chakras. The word chakra means “wheel,” and each
chakra, like a wheel, consists of various elements
that function together. Consciousness serves as a
hub, while psychological and physical structures surround it. These wheel-like vortices of energy along
the spinal column act as avenues for self-awareness
and anchor a wide variety of meditative practices.
The practical aim of tantra in regard to this system
of energies is to awaken dormant potentials, said
to be “sleeping” within. Awakening these dormant
capacities while directing their energies for higher
purposes is the goal of tantric practice. For example, energies resting at the base of the spine share the
common theme of survival. Once “awakened,” they
offer a sense of security and stability. Awakening is
accomplished through a skilful combination of the
practices already described.
Energies linked to the second chakra above the base
of the spine share a more evolved theme. They evoke
awareness of likes and dislikes, pleasures and related
pains. One aim of practice at this level is the development of equanimity. And thus, in a similar way,
awareness of each of the chakras from the base of the
spine to the crown of the head calls for an integration
of more primitive functioning and the development
of creative and intuitive capabilities. (See Table 2.3.)
A tally of nadis is listed in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika
as 72,000; in the Prapanchasara Tantra as 300,000;
and in the Shiva Samhita as 350,000 (Saraswati,
1985). But the number of primary nadis ranges from
just 10 to 14. Among these, it is agreed by all sources
that three are of particular significance, spanning
the length of the spine by weaving upward to end
at the base of the nose where the nostrils meet the
upper lip. The nadi ending at the base of the right
nostril is termed pingala and is associated with outward-moving, masculine energy. The nadi ending at
the base of the left nostril is termed ida and is associated with inward-moving, feminine energy. The
stream of energy ending at the base of the nose in the
center is termed sushumna, meaning “joyous mind.”
Thus when, through a highly evolved practice of
yogic concentration, ida and pingala are united, the
practitioner experiences great contentment and joy.
Schools of tantra yoga
We have already noted that tantra yoga practices
overlap significantly with classical yoga. In particular, the internal practices of tantra revolve around
the use of sounds called mantras. These sounds act
as supports for meditation, harnessing distracting
energies. The science of mantra is extensive and
the repetition of mantras can form a central aspect
of self-training. In addition, tantra has spawned a
variety of other schools of practice. Kundalini yoga,
svara yoga, mantra yoga, and laya yoga, as well as
hatha yoga, all exist under the tantric umbrella.
Conclusion
The scope of yoga practice and its philosophical
framework is much larger than most students realize
in the beginning. This chapter has presented only the
main themes of teachings that have emerged from
many thousands of years of practice and exploration.
Nonetheless, a glimpse is helpful. It offers support
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Introduction to yoga and yoga ther apy
Table 2.3 Chakras and their correlations in the human body
Yoga style/school
Key characteristics
Related URLs
A system of hatha yoga established by Swami Kriyananda, a disciple
of Paramahansa Yogananda, and based on his Kriya yoga teachings.
Emphasizes self-awareness and pranayama, enhanced by initiation
www.ananda.org
Ananda yoga
A school of yoga oriented around tantric teachings. Hatha poses are
developed from a creative and devotional inner feeling. Principles of
alignment underlie postures and connect to spiritual growth
www.anusarayoga.com
Anusara yoga
A Hatha yoga system taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois (1915–2009).
It involves synchronizing the breath with a series of postures—producing
intense heat, detoxiication, a light, strong body and calm mind
www.ashtanga.com
Ashtanga yoga
Bihar School of Yoga
(India)
The Bihar School of Yoga has been the source of many modern
publications, translating essential yoga texts. Its teachings and practice
focus on the integration of Vedantic, tantric, and yogic practice
www.biharyoga.net
A system of 26 Hatha yoga postures selected and sequenced by
Bikram Choudhury and practiced in a heated room. Heat is supplied in
order to soften body tissues and prepare them for puriication
www.bikramyoga.com
Bikram yoga
Gitananda yoga
(India)
Also called “Rishiculture Ashtanga yoga,” this school was founded by
Dr. Swami Gitananda Giri. While including the full range of classical
yoga practice, it gives special emphasis to mantra, tantra, and yantra
www.rishiculture.org
Hatha yoga
A large number of yoga studios and schools function without particular
school afiliation or branding. The primary form of yoga they teach
is hatha yoga, drawing on teachings from a variety of sources, and
ranging from gentle to challenging.
Himalayan Institute
yoga
A school directly linked to the meditative traditions of yoga and tantra.
Emphasizes Patanjali’s eight-fold path along with the development of a
thorough integration of yoga philosophy and practice
www.himalayaninstitute.org
www.yogainternational.com
Integral yoga
(Sri Aurobindo)
(India)
Focused on the teachings of noted, twentieth century Indian
philosopher, Sri Aurobindo. Dedicated to the integration of one’s
lower and higher natures through meditation and daily action
www.auroville.org
www.miraura.org
Following the teachings and inspiration of Swami Satchidananda,
students of this school integrate six forms of yoga: hatha, raja, bhakti,
karma, jnana, and japa (repetition of mantra)
www.yogaville.org
Integral yoga
www.bksiyengar.com
Iyengar yoga
Based on the teaching of Sri B.K.S. Iyengar, this practice style
emphasizes precision and alignment. A variety of props assist
in making postures accessible. Careful sequencing of postures
is cultivated
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history, philosophy, and pr actice of yoga
Table 2.3 – continued
Yoga style/school
Key characteristics
Related URLs
A vigorous, vinyasa-based hatha yoga style with mindful adherence to
ive tenets: shastra (scripture), bhakti (devotion), ahimsa (non-harming),
naada (music), and dhyana (meditation)
www.jivamukti.com
Jivamukti yoga
Distinguished by an emphasis on bringing awareness to the physical
sensations, emotions, and thoughts that arise in practice. Kripalu
teachers describe this as “inquiry-based” learning
www.kripalu.org
Kripalu yoga
Kundalini yoga
(3HO)
A vigorous practice dedicated to spiritual awakening through the active
integration of a wide variety of yoga techniques. Known for integrating
posture work with pranayama and mantra
www.3ho.org/kundalini-yoga
Kuvalayananda/
Kaivalyadhama
(India)
A research Institute, Kaivalyadhama, founded in 1924 by Swami
Kuvalayananda. He envisioned bringing modern science and traditional
yoga together. Now contains a college, hospital, and a research facility
www.kdham.com
Patanjali yoga promotes the spread of yoga through the work of Swami
Ramdev, a leading Indian teacher. The organization has reached most
parts of India. It includes a university, a hospital, a training center, and
research facility
www.divyayoga.com
Patanjali yoga
(India)
Power yoga
A vigorous, itness-based practice of Hatha yoga. Drawn from the
teachings of Patabhi Jois, it focuses on lexibility and strength. Class
sequences vary and have been imported into a variety of itness settings
Self-realization
fellowship
SRF is an organization founded by Paramahansa Yogananda to convey
the teachings of Kriya yoga. It offers a meditative path, taught in four
steps, combining pranayama, mantra, and initiation
www.yogananda-srf.org
Sivananda
yoga
Begins with a traditional, slow paced, meditative class that helps
encourage proper breathing, lexibility, strength, and vitality in the body
while calming the mind
www.sivananda.org
Swami Vivekananda Yoga Anusandhana Samsthana (founded in 1970s)
is a yoga University (2002) promoting the fourfold message of Swami
Vivekananda: karma, bhakti, jnana, and raja yoga. It also includes a
hospital and research facility
www.svyasa.edu.in
S-VYASA
(India)
A therapeutic approach that adapts methods of practice according to
the unique condition, needs and interests of each individual. A gentle
practice tailored to a student’s changing condition
www.viniyoga.com
Viniyoga
Vinyasa yoga
Traditionally, vinyasa practice is distinguished by its attention to
transitions, both within an individual posture and in posture sequences.
Vinyasa yoga is now identiied with vigorous styles of practice
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Introduction to yoga and yoga ther apy
Table 2.3 – continued
Yoga style/school
Key characteristics
Related URLs
Other Western styles
and teachers
Agni yoga; Anahata yoga; Amrit yoga (Amrit Desai); Dru yoga; Forrest
yoga (Ana Forrest); Hot yoga; ISHTA yoga (Alan Finger); Kriya yoga;
Para yoga (Rod Stryker); Prana Flow yoga (Shiva Rae); Restorative
yoga; Samatva yoga; Sampoorna yoga (Yogi Hari); Shanti yoga; Shiva
yoga; Siddha yoga; Svaroopa yoga (Swami Nirmalananda); Triyoga
(Kali Ray); White Lotus yoga (Tracey Rich and Ganga White); Yin yoga;
Mount Madonna Center (Baba Hari Dass)
Other
Indian schools
of yoga
Art of Living Foundation; Isha Institute of Inner Sciences; Dev
Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya; The Divine Life Society; Himalayan
Institute Hospital Trust; The International Centre for Yoga Education
and Research; Isha Foundation; Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram;
Sannidhi of Krishnamacharya Yoga; Morarji Desai National Institute
of Yoga; Sri Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission; The Yoga
Institute, Santacruz; Vipassana International Academy
Table 2.4 Styles and schools of yoga
Chakra
Centre
Petals
Physical
Plexus
Endocrine
gland
Muladhara
Root support lotus
4
Base of spine
Sacral
Gonads
Integration, solidarity,
cohesiveness
Swadhisthana
Lotus of one’s own
abode
6
Pelvis
Hypogastric
Adrenals
Flexibility, diplomacy,
equanimity
Manipura
Gem city lotus
10
Navel
Solar
Pancreas
Power, passion, motivation
Anahata
Lotus of unstruck sound
12
Heart
Cardiac
Thymus
Compassion, tolerance,
understanding
Vishuddha
Throat/purity
16
Throat
Pharyngeal
Thyroid
Freedom, communication,
Ajna
Brow/intuition
2
Brow
Cavernous
Pituitary
Wisdom, intuition
Sahasrara
Crown
1000
Top of the head
Coronal
Pineal
Transcendence
for the assertion that yoga’s ability to enhance health
and foster healing emerges from a deep and systematic understanding of human affairs.
There has been an enormous surge in the worldwide
growth of yoga in the past few decades, and it is now
a multi-billion dollar industry. Many of the popular approaches to yoga visible today are included in
Qualities
Table 2.4, a list of styles and yoga schools both in the
United States and in India.
As time passes, yoga is finding a broad audience.
This is happening quite rapidly in the United States.
A report from the National Center for Health Statistics notes that overall use of yoga among adults
increased from 5.1% in 2002 to 9.5% in 2012 (p < .05),
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with use among adults 65 and over almost tripling
(1.3% to 3.3%, respectively). Yoga use was most prevalent among adults 18 to 44, jumping from 6.3% in
2002 to 11.2% in 2012 (p < .05) (Walker, 2015).
In an interview, Josephine Briggs, MD, director of
the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), a division of the National
Institutes of Health, noted that health care trends
typically tend to remain stable, so the rapid growth
in yoga’s popularity is especially noteworthy. Briggs
suggested that the increased prevalence of yoga is
likely due to its role in pain management (particularly musculoskeletal pain), an important area of
awareness for health care providers (Walker, 2015).
The degree to which students of any approach validate it with their feet is important, for foot traffic
is certainly one practical measure of the usefulness
of a teaching. Another is the extent to which yoga
philosophy and practice have been carefully examined and wisely fused. Finally, as this book illustrates, claims about yoga are also being investigated
by controlled experiment and clinical observation.
Since introspection and observation have long been
the heart of yoga practice, perhaps these investigations will make it possible to envision a world in
which wise use is made of the therapeutic tools of
both East and West.
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modern times. Pondicherry, India: Satya Press.
Bryant, E. (2009). The yoga sutras of Patanjali. New York:
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Feuerstein, G. (1996). The Shambala guide to yoga. Boston,
MA: Shambala Publications Inc.
Feuerstein, G. (2001). The yoga tradition: Its history, literature,
philosophy, and practice. Prescott, AZ: Hohm Press.
Feuerstein, G. (2003). The deeper dimension of yoga theory and
practice. Boston, MA: Shambala Publications Inc.
Giri, G. S. (1976). Yoga: Step-by-step. Pondicherry, India:
Satya Press.
Giri, G. S. (1999). Ashtanga yoga of Patanjali. Pondicherry,
India: Satya Press.
Goswami, S. S. (1999). Laya yoga: The definitive guide to
the chakras and kundalini. From the preface by G. Feuerstein.
Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions.
Nikhilananda, S. (1963). The upanishads (abridged). New
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Nikhilananda, S. (1931). Vedantasara. Almora, U.P., India:
Swami Vireswarananda, Advaita Ashram.
Panikkar, R. (1977). The vedic experience. New Delhi, India:
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Rama, S. (1990). Wisdom of the ancient sages: The mundaka
upanishad. Honesdale, PA: Himalayan Institute Press.
Saraswati, S.S. (1999). Four chapters on freedom. (Commentary
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